LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Deceived      Hxrtr.  ....!  .Q          , 

i 


Accessions  No.  H&  74    I  .  Class  No.  ' 


METHODS  AND  AIDS 


IN  GEOGRAPHY 


FOR    THE   USE   OF 


TEACHERS  AND   NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


BY 


CHARLES    F.    KING 

PRESIDENT   OF    NATIONAL    SUMMER   SCHOOL   OF   METHODS 

MASTER     OF     DEARBORN     SCHOOL    BOSTON 
FORMERLY   SUB-MASTER    OF   LEWIS   SCHOOL    BOSTON 


WITH  NUMJgfag&lJL  }±±^TRA  TJONS 


UHIYERSIT7 


BOSTON  1889 
LEE    AND     SHEPARD    PUBLISHERS 

10  MILK  STREET  NEXT  "  THE  OLD  SOUTH  MEETING-HOUSE  " 

NEW  YORK  CHARLES  T.  DILLINGHAM 

718  AND   720   BROADWAY 


COPYRIGHT,  1888,  BY  LEE  AND  SHEPARD. 


All  rights  reserved. 


WHEN  GEOGRAPHY  ceases  to  be  a  lifeless  aggre- 

•  of  unorganized  facts,  and  deals  with  the  earth 

true  organization,  -a  world  capable  of  constant 

development,  carrying  in  its  bosom  the  seeds  of  the 

future,  to  germinate  andl&tt^^e  after  age,  -it  first 

ns  the  unity  and  wholeness  of  a  science,  and 

shows  that  it  grows  from  a  living  root;  it  becomes 

capable  of  systematic  exposition,  and  takes  its  true 

place  in  the  circle  of  sister  sciences  - 


THE  POWER  OF  TEACHING  A  LITTLE,  depends 
upon  the  power  of  knowing  a  great  deal. 

GOOD  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  are  important, 
but  they  cannot*  supply  the  want  of  ability  in  the 
teacher.  The  Socratic  method  is  good  ;  but  a  Socrates 
behind  the  teacher's  desk,  to  ask  the  questions,  is 
better.  —  BALOET. 


PREFACE 


THE  greatest  enterprises  of  the  present  day  are  the 
result  of  accurate  geographical  knowledge.  The  finest 
exhibitions  of  heroism  and  bravery  and  suffering  have  been 
endured  amid  frigid  cold  or  tropic  heat,  in  order  to  enlarge 
the  world's  geographical  information ;  and  the  most  exqui- 
site pleasure  enjoyed  by  educated  people  is  found  in  real 
geographical  study  while  travelling. 

In  the  different  German  universities,  there  are  to-day 
twelve  regular  professors  of  geography.  France  has  twenty- 
five  geographical  societies,  with  a  membership  of  over 
twenty  thousand.  England  has  five  societies ;  Germany, 
two  ;  and  America,  one.  At  the  annual  meetings  of  these 
numerous  societies,  and  in  the  one  hundred  and  twenty 
periodicals  published  by  them,  the  growing  importance  of 
geographical  study  has  been  eloquently  discussed,\  and  the 
strongest  criticisms  expressed  in  reference  to  the  methods 
and  text-books  so  universally  employed  in  teaching  the 
subject. 

Geography  is  the  most  fascinating,  or  the  least  attractive, 
study  in  the  common-school  curriculum,  according  to  the 
method  and  books  employed  in  teaching  it.  The  inferior 
instruction  given  in  this  subject  when  the  author  attended 
the  district  school,  and  his  own  failures  in  the  same  line 


VI  PREFACE 

when  he  began  his  life-work  in  New  Bedford  in  1867,  nave 
led,  by  a  deep-felt  necessity,  to  long  and  earnest  study,  and 
to  continued  efforts  for  better  methods  and  more  satisfactory 
results. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  the  teaching  fraternity 
the  results  of  these  twenty  years  of  experience  in  the  school- 
room. 

• 

Ideas  and  facts  have  been  gathered,  by  much  patient 
research,  from  many  available  sources.  Most  of  the  books 
thus  freely  consulted  are  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the 
chapters.  Teachers  are  urged  to  purchase  these  books  as 
fast  as  means  will  allow,  that  they  may  have  the  satisfaction 
of  more  extended  information,  and  consequently  greater 
teaching  power. 

It  gives  the  author  great  pleasure  to  acknowledge  here 
special  assistance  and  suggestion  from  Misses  O'Neil  and 
Murphy,  Lewis  School,  Roxbury ;  from  Professor  Charles  F. 
Adams,  Massachusetts  State  Normal  School,  Worcester ; 
from  Professor  Thomas  M.  Balliet,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Springfield  ;  from  Dr.  S.  T.  Button,  superintendent  of  schools, 
New  Haven ;  and  from  many  of  the  officials  in  the  Boston 
Public  Library,  among  whom  particular  mention  should  be 
made  of  Mr.  A.  P.  C.  Griffin,  whose  accurate  memory,  and 
wonderful  knowledge  of  books,  have  frequently  been  of  the 
greatest  assistance. 

To  my  friend  and  fellow- worker,  Mr.  M.  T.  Pritchard, 
master  of  the  Comins  School,  Boston,  Mass.,  I  am  greatly 
indebted  for  many  valuable  suggestions,  and  for  the  careful 
reading  of  both  the  manuscript  and  the  proofs. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY     ...  i 

II.  AIMS  AND  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY  ...  21 

III.  WRONG  METHODS  vs.  THE  TOPICAL  METHOD 37 

IV.  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  TOPICAL  METHOD 53 

V.  APPARATUS <    .    .  75 

VI.  MAP  LANGUAGE 89 

VII.  .  MAPS 99 

VIII.  PICTURES  AND  OBJECTS 121 

IX.  MISCELLANEOUS  DEVICES 137 

X.  MODEL  LESSONS 189 

XI.  Six  YEARS'  COURSE  OF  STUDY 221 

XII.  Six  YEARS'  COURSE  OF  STUDY  (concluded) 235 

XIII.  WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NORTH  AMERICA 255 

XIV.  WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NORTH  AMERICA  (continued)      .    .  285 
XV.  WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NORTH  AMERICA  (concluded}     .    .  321 

XVI.  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 341 

XVII.  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  (concluded} 361 

XVIII.  MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY 385 

XIX.  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION  ....  425 

XX.  LIST  OF  A  THOUSAND  BOOKS 453 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES Frontispiece, 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  PORTRAIT  OF  RITTER 27 

2.  PORTRAIT  OF  HUMBOLDT 29 

3.  OUTLINE  OF  THE  WORLD.     Opposite 70 

4.  SAME  OUTLINE  FILLED  IN  BY  PUPIL.     Opposite 70 

5.  RUBBER  PEN 84 

6.  DISHES  AND  BRUSHES  USED  IN  SAND  MAP 103 

7.  BEGINNING  OF  THE  SAND  MAP , 104 

8.  SAND  MAP,  SECOND  STEP 105 

9   SAND  MAP,  COMPLETED 106 

10.  CONTOUR  LINES 109 

n.  DIAGRAM  FOR  NORTH  AMERICA 112 

12.  PROGRESSIVE  MAP,  NORTH  AMERICA 115 

13.  PROGRESSIVE  MAP,  NORTH  AMERICA 115 

14.  PROGRESSIVE  MAP,  NORTH  AMERICA 115 

15.  PROGRESSIVE  MAP,  NORTH  AMERICA  .    , .115 

16.  HEATH'S  OUTLINE  MAP 118 

17.  THE  SAME  FILLED  IN 119 

18.  OLD-FASHIONED  PICTURE 125 

19.  NEW-STYLE  PICTURE 126 

20.  SIZE  OF  CONTINENTS  AND  WATER 139 

21.  CONTINENTS  COMPARED  WITH  EACH  OTHER 139 

22.  COMPARATIVE  SIZE  OF  STATES  AND  OTHER  COUNTRIES  ...  141 

23.  A  PART  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMPARED  WITH  ARGENTINE 

REPUBLIC  AND  BRITISH  INDIA 142 

ix 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

24.  BRAZIL  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 143 

25.  ALASKA  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 144 

26.  LENGTH  OF  CALIFORNIA  ON  THE  ATLANTIC  COAST     ....  145 

27.  AREA  OF  FRANCE  AND  GERMANY    ...........  146 

28.  AREA  OF  ENGLAND,  BELGIUM,  ETC 146 

29.  COMPARATIVE  SIZE  OF  MOUNTAINS 146 

30.  COMPARATIVE  SIZE  IN  POPULATION  OF  VARIOUS  CITIES,  ETC.  147 

31.  LONDON  COMPARED  WITH  NEW  ENGLAND  AND  NEW  JERSEY  .  148 

32.  STARTLING  STATISTICS 149 

33.  MANUFACTURING  AND  AGRICULTURE  COMPARED 149 

34.  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMPARED  .    .    .  151 

35.  DIFFERENT  GRAND  DIVISIONS  COMPARED 151 

36.  DIFFERENT  CREEDS  COMPARED 151 

37.  SHAPES  OF  COUNTRIES 153 

38.  MOUTHS  OF^THE  Po 155 

39.  SKETCH-MAP  OF  FLODDEN  FIELD     .    .    « 162 

40.  SKETCH-MAP  OF  OCEANICA 162 

41.  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  . 164 

42.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  RAIN  FROM  THE  OCEAN  . 167 

43.  CURRENTS  PRODUCED 168 

44.  HOW  TO  REPRESENT  ELEVATIONS 170 

45.  SKETCH-MAP  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 171 

46.  NUMBER  OF  INHABITANTS  IN  WET  AND  DRY  CLIMATES.    .    .  172 

47.  NUMBER  OF  INHABITANTS  IN  WARM  AND  COLD  TEMPERATURES,  174 

48.  COAL-FlELDS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 179 

49.  MAP  OF  MAUCH  CHUNK 180 

50.  A  FALLING  ROOF 180 

51.  COAL  BREAKER 180 

52.  PEN-PICTURE  OF  MAUCH  CHUNK 181 

53.  ANOTHER  TITLE-PAGE  DRAWN  WITH  PEN 182 

54.  ILLUSTRATION  FROM  FRINK'S  COMPOSITION 186 

55.  BELTS  OF  FORESTS  AND  DESERTS.     Opposite 187 

56.  THE  UPHEAVALS  AND  DEPRESSIONS.     Opposite 187 

57.  COMPARISONS  OF  THE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  IN  AREA.    Opposite  .  260 

58.  ELEVATIONS  OK  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES 269 

59.  THE  GREAT  LAKES 274 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FIGURE  PAGE 

60.  THE  GREAT  BEND  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER 275 

61.  PROFILE  OF  NIAGARA  FALLS 278 

62.  ANNUAL  INDUSTRIES 371 

63.  ANNUAL  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD .  371 

64.  ANNUAL  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 371 

65.  PERPENDICULAR  AND  SLOPING  RAYS    , 399 

66.  SIMPLE  APPARATUS  FOR  MEASURING  LATITUDE 405 

67.  GREAT  DIPPER  AND  CASSIOPEIA 407 

68.  YEARLY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH 417 


UNIVERSITY 


INTRODUCTION 


A  WORD  or  two,  at  this  point,  in  reference  to  the  wisest 
use   of  the   book,  may  not  be  amiss.     The  different 
chapters  may  be  classified  under  the  following  heads  :  — 

1.  How  to  teach  geography. 

2.  What  to  teach  in  geography. 

3.  Where  to  find  valuable  geographical  knowledge. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  benefits  possible  from  the 
contents,  it  is  well  not  to  attempt  to  follow  with  blind 
confidence  all  the  methods  recommended  in  the  first  part. 
Although  these  methods  have  been  employed  in  my  own 
school,  or  by  trusted  teachers  in  other  schools,  and  all  have 
been  found  to  be  excellent  where  used,  yet  your  circum- 
stances may  be  very  different.  It  is  your  privilege,  as  well 
as  your  duty,  to  select,  or  find  out  by  experiment,  the 
methods  best  adapted  to  your  own  schoolroom.  Modify 
these  methods,  if  necessary,  so  as  to  make  them  really  your 
own,  and  then  success  will  invariably  follow. 

If  your  school  is  not  well  graded,  or  if  your  committee, 
superintendent,  or  principal  requires  certain  results,  you 
may  need  to  modify  your  use  of  the  book  to  correspond. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  nearly  all  the  methods,  slightly 
changed  to  meet  different  conditions,  will  be  found  to  be 
most  helpful  to  any  teacher  of  geography. 


XIV  INTRODUCTION 

Under  the  head  of  What  to  teach,  extensive  statistical 
information  has  been  given,  NOT  TO  BE  MEMORIZED,  but 
simply  as  material  with  which  teacher  and  pupil  can  form 
comparisons,  from  which  they  can  draw  conclusions,  and 
with  which  they  can  construct  a  better  geography  than  the 
ordinary  text-book  provides.  In  this  way  pupils  will  un- 
consciously learn  and  remember  all  the  necessary  facts. 

In  Chap.  XVIII. ,  on  Commercial  Geography,  and  in 
Chaps.  XIX.  and  XX.,  devoted  to  Sources  of  Information 
and  Illustration,  a  large  amount  of  varied  information,  not 
easily  accessible,  has  been  presented,  in  order  to  give  a  wide 
range  of  selection.  The  wise  teacher  will  daily  choose  from 
these  chapters  such  additional  information  as  will  make  the 
lesson  more  interesting  and  profitable.  Many  of  the  books 
mentioned  in  the  volume  ought  to  be  found  in  your  own 
town-library,  under  each  author's  name  ;  or  they  can  prob- 
ably be  purchased  at  the  nearest  bookstore ;  or,  if  you 
prefer,  the  publishers  of  this  volume  will  cheerfully  furnish 
information,  and  fill  orders  for  any  book  mentioned. 

The  headings  to  the  chapters  wilt  frequently  be  service- 
able in  review  work,  and  the  table  of  contents  and  index 
can  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  with  normal  classes.  In 
addition  to. the  usual  style,  the  publishers  have  bound  the 
book  in  flexible  covers,  so  that  it  will  easily  lie  open  upon 
the  teacher's  desk,  and  be  more  readily  used.  The  illustra- 
tions are  of  a  practical,  rather  than  an  artistic,  nature,  and 
are  such  as  can  be  readily  reproduced  in  crayon  on  the 
blackboard.  Most  of  them  have  been  drawn  by  my  own 
pupils,  and  reproduced  by  photography. 

Many  of  the  historical  and  descriptive  references  in  this 
book  apply  to  New  England;  but  they  are  merely  sug- 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 

gestive,  and  the  wise  teacher  can  readily  adapt  them  to  suit 
other  localities. 

The  word  "geography"  is  a  comprehensive  term,  and 
admits  of  many  subdivisions,  —  physical,  political,  historical, 
descriptive,  ethnographical,  mathematical,  etc.  Each  of 
these  parts  is  a  science  in  itself,  and  has  its  special  field  for 
investigation  and  development.  In  all  schools  for  primary 
and  secondary  instruction,  there  need  be  but  little  done  in 
any  one  of  the  particular  subdivisions.  What  is  required 
is  a  judicious  blending  of  all  into  an  harmonious  whole,  in 
which  no  subordination,  no  prominence,  is  given  to  any  part 
of  the  all-embracing  science. 

In  some  recently  published  manuals,  undue  —  and  for 
practical  purposes  unwise  —  prominence  has  been  given  to 
physical  geography,  seemingly  founded  on  the  definition 
that  "  geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth's  surface ;  " 
whereas  the  educational  spirit  of  the  age  requires  the  addi- 
tion of  the  words,  "  and  its  inhabitants,"  to  the  trite  and 
much-abused  definition. 

In  the  following  pages,  the  endeavor  has  been  made  to 
suggest  some  methods  for  teaching  geography  comprehen- 
sively but  not  exhaustively.  Hence  only  a  few  of  the 
simple  and  interesting  facts  of  physical  geography  are 
mentioned  in  the  Six  Years'  Course  laid  out  in  Chapters 
XL  and  XII. 

In  this  matter  our  experience,  as  set  forth  in  this  volume, 
happily  agrees  with  Ritter,  Guyot,  Reclus,  Geikie,  Crocker, 
and  Carver. 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER    I 

PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY 


A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  laws  of  mental  operations,  in  other  words, 
of  their  conditions,  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  practical  utility  to  the 
educator.  —  Sully. 


BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE 


CALDERWOOD'S  TEACHING. 

CURRIE'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  EDUCATION. 

COMPAYRE'S  HISTORY  OF  PEDAGOGY. 

FITCH'S  LECTURES  ON  TEACHING. 

FROEBEL'S  EDUCATION  OF  MAN. 

GILL'S  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION. 

HEWITTS  PEDAGOGY. 

KRUN'S  LIFE  OF  PESTALOZZI. 

JOHNSON'S  EDUCATION  BY  DOING. 

JOHONNOT'S  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE. 

LAURIE'S  COMENIUS. 

LOCKE  ON  EDUCATION. 

PAGE'S  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE. 

PARKER'S  TALKS  ON  EDUCATION. 

Jos.  PAYNE'S  LECTURES  ON  EDUCATION. 

W.  H.  PAYNE'S  SCIENCE  OF  EDUCATION. 

ROSENKRANZ'S  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION. 

QUICK'S  EDUCATIONAL  REFORMERS. 

SPENCER'S  EDUCATION. 

SULLY'S  PSYCHOLOGY. 

THRING'S  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  EDUCATION, 

TATE'S  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION. 

WHITE'S  ELEMENTS  OF  PEDAGOGY. 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER   I 

PART  I -PRINCIPLES   PERTAINING  TO   THE  TEACHER 

EXACT  KNOWLEDGE  —  CAREFUL  PREPARATION  —  FREE  INTERCOURSE  BETWEEN 
TEACHER  AND  PUPIL — INSTRUCTION  ADAPTED  TO  THE  CHILD-MIND  —  CHILDREN 
NOT  TO  BE  TOLD  EVERY  THING  — THE  RIGHT  ORDER  OF  PRESENTING  A  SUBJECT 

PART   II  — PRINCIPLES   PERTAINING  TO  THE   PUPIL 

PUPILS'  OBSERVING  POWERS  —  SENSATION  AND  ATTENTION  BEFORE  PERCEPTION  — 
HABIT  OF  ATTENTION,  HOW  CULTIVATED  —  THE  ACTIVITY  OF  THE  EAR,  THE  EYE, 
AND  THE  HAND  —  PROFESSOR  CALDERWOOD  AND  OTHERS  —  INTELLIGENT  OBSERVATION 
SHOULD  BE  CULTIVATED  —  "ALCAZAR"  —  NOT  EASY  TO  CLASSIFY,  ETC. —  TO  MIS- 
TAKE THE  SIGN  —  REVIEW  AND  REPETITION 


PART  I 

PRINCIPLES  PERTAINING  TO  THE  TEACHER 
1.   The  Necessity  of  Ample  and  Exact  Knowledge  of  the  Subject  taught. 

OLD  ROGER  ASCHAM  in  his  "Schoolmaster"  de- 
scribes his  ideal  student  and  teacher  as  "  Philoponos, 
that  one  who  hath  lust  to  labor;  and  Zetetikos,  one  that 
is  always  desirous  to  search  out  any  doubt,  not  ashamed  to 
learn  of  the  meanest,  nor  afraid  to  go  to  the  greatest,  till 
he  be  perfectly  taught  and  fully  satisfied." 

3 


4  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

"A  teacher,"  said  Edward  Everett,  "ought  to  know,  of  every  thing, 
much  more  than  the  learner  can  be  expected  to  acquire.  The  teacher 
must  know  things  in  a  masterly  way,  curiously  and  nicely  and  in  their 
reasons.  He  must  see  truth  under  all  its  aspects,  with  its  antecedents 
and  consequents,  or  he  cannot  present  it  in  just  that  shape  in  which 
the  young  mind  can  apprehend  it.  He  must,  as  he  holds  the 
diamond  up  to  the  sun,  turn  its  facets  round  and  round,  till  the  pupil 
catches  the  lustre." 

Education  is  both  an  art  and  a  science.  The  art  of  edu- 
cation deals  with  the  methods ;  the  science  of  education 
explains  the  principles.  Daily  work  in  the  schoolroom  gives 
experience  in  the  art  of  teaching ;  reading  Sully,  or  listening 
to  some  of  the  great  lecturers  on  psychology  or  pedagogics, 
increases  one's  knowledge  of  the  science  of  teaching. 

The  main  object  and  purpose  of  this  book  is  practical : 
to  help  the  teacher  directly  in  his  work,  to  deal  with  the 
methods  of  teaching  geography, —  the  art  of  the  subject, — • 
rather  than  to  study  and  consider  the  principles  underlying 
those  methods.  Yet  to  save  repetition  and  constant  refer- 
ence to  numerous  educational  books,  some  of  which  may 
not  be  in  the  reader's  library  at  the  present  time,  it  may  be 
well  to  recall  and  emphasize  a  few  well-known  and  generally 
accepted  principles  of  education,  now  believed  in  and  prac- 
tised by  the  best  instructors  of  the  world. 

It  was  a  remark  of  Professor  Henry,  that 

"The  laws  which  govern  the  growth  and  operations  of  the  human 
mind  are  as  definite  and  as  general  in  their  application  as  those  which 
apply  to  the  material  universe ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  true  system 
of  education  must  be  based  upon  a  knowledge  and  application  of 
those  laws." 

If  a  stranger  should  to-day  visit  a  dozen  schools  in  Boston 
or  any  large  city  in  this  country,  and  report  the  five  teachers 


CAREFUL   PREPARATION  5 

who  seemed  to  possess  the  greatest  teaching  capacity,  he 
would  without  doubt  select  sien  of  whom  the  superintendent 
of  the  city  would  laughingly  say,  "  Of  course  they  did  well 
on  those  subjects,  for  they  are  experts  in  those  departments." 
And  further  study  of  the  five  cases  by  the  stranger  would 
reveal  the  fact  that  these  men  possessed  fine  memories,  that 
they  were  great  readers,  that  they  had  been  studying  those 
particular  branches  for  years  and  years,  that  they  possessed 
large  libraries  on  their  favorite  subjects,  that  they  were 
never  satisfied  with  their  present  knowledge,  but  were  ever 
trying  to  increase  their  acquaintance  with  these  studies. 

The  old  adage,  Knowledge  is  power,  is  never  truer  than 
in  the  work  of  teaching.  Alas  !  how  often  have  teachers 
tried  to  deny  the  truth  of  this  saying  in  reference  to  geogra- 
phy ;  and  how  often  have  their  dismal  and  cruel  failures 
testified  to  the  general  correctness  of  the  adage  ! 

Exact,  full,  complete  knowledge  of  the  subject  gives  the 
teacher  that  self-confidence  necessary  to  the  best  presentation 
of  information,  makes  him  court  questions,  independent  of 
one  little  text-book,  broad-minded,  able  to  make  comparisons, 
to  express  decided  opinions  if  necessary,  and,  best  of  all, 
confers  the  power  to  stimulate  by  unconscious  example  the 
desire  in  the  students  to  learn  more  on  the  subject. 

2.    This  Exact  Knowledge  requiring  Careful  Daily  Preparation. 

Fitch  truly  says,  "  The  moment  any  man  ceases  to  be  a 
systematic  student,  he  ceases  to  be  an  effective  teacher.'* 

Constant  study  keeps  the  teacher  in  sympathy  with  the 
pupils,  makes  him  more  patient  and  more  willing  to  explain. 
His  example  encourages  them  to  work  faithfully  as  nothing 
else  will. 


6  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Geography  is  not  an  exact  science,  like  arithmetic,  which 
may  perhaps  be  once  learned,  ajid  learned  forever.  Geog- 
raphy is  constantly  enlarging  its  scope  and  changing  its  facts 
as  the  world  progresses.  Hence  the  live  teacher  must  make 
fresh  preparation,  or  teach  a  legendary  geography,  as  is 
really  being  done  all  about  us  by  the  servile  users  of  most 
text-books.  Compare  the  productions  and  exports  given 
for  various  countries,  in  many  geographies,  with  the  facts 
stated  in  the  United  States  Consular  Reports,  and  notice  the 
wonderful  differences. 

3.    Free  Intercourse  to  be  encouraged  between  Teacher  and  Pupils. 

If  the  teacher  has  made  the  careful  preparation  men- 
tioned above,  he  will  be  ready  to  encourage  a  certain  dig- 
nified, and,  at  the  same  time,  free,  intercourse  between 
himself  and  his  class,  such  as  will  lead  them  to  ask  all  kinds 
of  questions  upon  the  subjects  under  consideration,  and 
also  to  impart  information  acquired  at  home,  on  their 
travels,  by  extra  reading,  even  to  present  opinions  of  authors 
and  books,  and  to  give  reasons  for  the  same.  No  greater 
mistake  can  be  made  by  a  teacher  than  to  hold  himself  so 
far  above  his  pupils  that  they  do  not  dare  to  be  familiar 
enough  with  him  to  seek  explanations  of  things  misunder- 
stood. All  proper  questions  should  be  welcome,  for  nothing 
shows  more  conclusively  good  attention  than  the  asking  of 
a  pertinent  question  at  the  right  moment.  The  proper 
reply  to  the  question  may  be,  "Look  in  the  dictionary," 
"  in  the  gazetteer,"  or  "  in  the  geography." 

Teachers  can  in  a  short  time  educate  a  class  to  exhibit 
this  feeling  of  confidence,  by  refusing  ever  to  laugh  at  mis- 
takes, or  to  allow  members  of  the  class  to  do  so,  by  refrain- 


THE  AVERAGE  CHILD  7 

ing  from  sarcastic  remarks,  and  by  approving  all  efforts 
made  by  the  pupils  in  the  direction  recommended.  When- 
ever a  pupil  gives  some  fact  unknown  to  teacher  as  well  as 
pupil,  the  teacher  will  wisely  acknowledge  his  ignorance, 
and  commend  the  pupil  who  taught  him  something.  This 
course  pleases  the  pupil,  and  makes  him  think  all  the  more 
of  his  teacher. 

4.    The  Method  of  Instruction  adapted  to  the  Mind  of  the  Average 
Child  in  the  Class. 

As  long  as  the  present  foolish  and  expensive  method  of 
teaching  pupils  in  large  classes  of  fifty-six  members  is 
adhered  to  by  school-boards,  under  false  ideas  of  economy, 
the  teacher  is  practically  prevented  from  giving  much  indi- 
vidual instruction  in  the  regular  time  for  school  work.  He 
must  work  with  the  class  as  a  unit,  and  adapt  his  instruc- 
tion and  methods,  not  to  the  brightest  ten,  not  to  the  dullest 
ten,  but  to  the  ability  and  understanding  of  the  middle 
section  of  the  class. 

Some  teachers  make  the  mistake  of  spending  most  of 
their  time  and  energy  with  the  slow  and  dull  pupils.  Such 
a  course  is  entirely  wrong,  because  so  unjust  to  the  bright 
members  of  the  class.  The  teacher  must  not  undertake  to 
supply  deficiencies  of  brain ;  that  is  the  work  of  the  Creator, 
In  every  class  there  will  be  some  who  can  never  understand, 
never  remember,  never  be  as  accurate,  as  ordinary  children. 
Such  pupils  can  never  be  made  perfect,  even  if  they  were 
placed  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  of  having 
a  teacher  all  by  themselves.  After  the  teacher  has  adapted 
his  rate  of  progress  and  simplicity  of  explanation  to  the 
ability  of  the  average  child,  and  made  him  understand,  he 


5  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

should  advance  for  the  sake  of  the  middle  part  and  the  best 
part  of  his  class,  which  together  constitute  the  majority. 

As  classes  differ  year  by  year,  a  teacher's  progress  will 
vary  in  different  years,  and  his  methods  change,  in  detail, 
at  least.  Hence  the  wise  teacher  studies  his  class  as  well 
as  the  subject  to  be  taught. 

Thring  says,  — 

"  The  teacher's  subject  is  not  books,  but  mind.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  lecturer's  subject,  in  the  first  instance,  is  not  mind,  but 
books.  This  distinction  is  vital,  and  the  most  important  results 
follow." 

5.    Children  not  to  be  told  what  they  can  find  out  for  themselves. 
Sir  William  Hamilton  says,  — 

"The  primary  principle  of  education  is  the  determination  of  the 
pupil  to  self-activity,  —  the  doing  nothing  for  him  which  he  is  able  to 
do  for  himself." 

Payne  says,  — 

"  One  of  the  most  important  principles  in  education  is,  that  what 
a  child  does  for  and  by  himself,  educates  him.  The  highest  form  of 
teaching  consists,  then,  in  setting  a  child  to  gain  knowledge  for  him- 
self by  the  exercise  of  his  own  native  powers." 

These  men  do  not  mean  that  the  teacher  is  never,  to 
render  help  to  the  pupil :  he  is ;  but  that  help  will  be  the 
best  which  aims  to  encourage  pupils  to  help  themselves. 
The  teacher  who  awakens  enthusiasm,  guides  and  satisfies 
it  when  awakened,  does  much  more  for  the  pupil  than  the 
teacher  who  simply  imparts  information.  The  teacher  should 
never  forestall  the  delight  which  every  mind  has  in  finding 
out  truth  for  itself. 


PROFESSOR  JACOTOT  9 

How  does  Nature  teach?  She  makes  her  pupils  teach 
themselves.  She  gives  no  explanation,  no  discourse.  She 
does  not  tell  the  difference  between  hard  and  soft  things  : 
she  says,  "  Feel  them  ;  "  between  this  animal  and  that,  she 
says,  "  Place  them  side  by  side,  and  find  out  the  difference 
yourself." 

Perhaps  no  teacher  ever  followed  nature's  methods  more 
closely  than  Jacotot,  professor  at  Louvain,  Belgium,  and 
who  died  in  Paris  in  1840.  Instead  of  pouring  forth  a  flood 
of  information  on  the  subject  under  consideration,  from 
his  own  ample  stores,  and  explaining  the  whole  matter, 
he  would  make  a  few  simple  statements,  and  then  invite 
his  pupils  to  raise  questions,  make  observations,  suggest 
answers,  ask  for  facts.  His  object  was  to  excite  and  direct 
the  intellectual  energies  of  his  pupils,  —  to  train  them  to 
t/iink.  His  fundamental  principle  was  :  Learn  something, 
and  refer  all  the  rest  to  it.  His  system  is  condensed  into 
four  words  :  Learn,  repeat,  reflect,  and  verify.1 

Rousseau  says  in  his  "  Emile  :  "  — 

"  I  do  not  at  all  admire  explanatory  discourses ;  young  people  give 
little  attention  to  them,  and  never  retain  them.  Things!  things  !  I  can 
never  enough  repeat  it,  that  we  make  words  of  too  much  consequence." 

There  is  need  at  the  present  time,  for  teachers  to  heed 
the  warning  sounded  in  the  above  extracts.  Just  as  soon  as 
a  teacher  begins  to  depart  from  text-book  instruction  in 
geography,  for  instance,  he  is  apt  to  substitute  his  own 
tongue  for  the  book,  and  pour  into  the  empty  air  useless 
words  which  disappear  like  dew  in  the  morning. 

Instead  of  the  teacher  reading  to  the  children  frequently 

1  For  an  interesting  account  of  Jacotot's  method,  see  Jos.  Payne's  Education; 
English  edition,  p.  79. 


10  METHODS  AND  ATDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

on  geographical  subjects,  he  should  help  them  to  read  to 
him  ;  instead  of  telling  them  geographical  facts,  direct  them 
where  and  when  to  find  these  facts,  and  how  to  present 
them  to  the  class  as  new  knowledge.  Instead  of  interpret- 
ing the  map  to  the  children,  teach  them  to  read  it  as  they 
do  a  book,  and  to  relate  what  it  tells  to  one  another.  The 
great  object  of  this  book  is  to  suggest  to  teachers,  how  to 
make  the  child  learn  geography  for  himself  under  the  guid- 
ance of  his  teacher. 

6.  The  Necessity  of  being  Orderly  in  giving  Instruction  :  of  proceeding 
from  Particular  Facts  to  General  Truths ;  from  the  Simple  to  the 
Complex  ;  from  the  Known  to  the  Unknown. 

Jos.  Payne  says  :  — 

*  The  mind,  in  gaining  knowledge  for  itself,  proceeds  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  particular  facts  to  general  facts  or 
principles,  and  from  principles  to  laws,  rules,  and  definitions ;  and  not 
in  the  inverse  order." 

There  should  be  an  orderly  arrangement  of  what  is  taught, 
if  for  no  other  reason,  because  the  memory  retains  facts  more 
readily  if  presented  in  a  natural  order.  The  laws  of  mind, 
in  this  respect,  are  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  nature.  All 
well-written  scientific  articles,  the  best  stones  and  poems, 
are  developed  in  logical  order. 

The  impossibility  of  remembering  what  violates  this  natu- 
ral order  of  arrangement  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following 
example.  Foote,  the  comedian,  once  won  a  wager  by 
betting  that  a  certain  man  of  a  powerful  memory  could  not 
memorize  in  ten  minutes  the  following  :  — 

*'  So  she  went  into  the  garden  to  cut  a  cabbage-leaf  to  make  an 
apple-pie .  and  at  the  same  time  a  she-bear  coming  up  the  street,  pops 


THE  CHILD'S  MIND  I  I 

its  head  into  the  shop.  What,  no  soap?  So  he  died,  and  she  very 
imprudently  married  a  barber.  And  there  were  present  the  Picinin- 
nies,  the  elegant,  and  the  Joblillies,  and  the  Gargulies,  and  the  grand 
Panjandrum  himself;  with  a  little  round  bonnet  at  the  top;  and  they 
all  fell  to  playing  catch  as  catch  again;  till  the  gunpowder  ran  out  of 
the  heels  of  their  boots." 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  teaching  which  presents  the  sub- 
ject to  the  young  mind  in  about  as  jumbled-up  a  mess  as 
the  above  nonsensical  extract.  Every  teacher  knows  how 
easy  it  is  to  remember  certain  lectures  and  sermons,  how 
difficult  to  recall  others.  Every  teacher  should  study  out 
the  reason,  and  apply  the  deductions  to  his  own  teaching.1 

This  leads  to  the  second  part  of  this  chapter,  —  the  im- 
portance of  understanding  a  child's  mind  in  order  to 
teach  to  the  best  advantage. 


PART  II 
PRINCIPLES  PERTAINING  TO  THE  PUPIL 

THE  nature  of  a  child's  mind  usually  shows 

1.    His  Observing  Powers  to  be  Keener  and  more  Actire  than  his 
Reasoning  Powers. 

Thring  wisely  says,  — 

"The  complete  absence  of  the  reasoning  faculty,  so  far  as  learning 
by  means  of  it  goes,  determines  at  once  the  whole  character  of  good 
teaching  at  the  beginning.  There  must  be  simple  statements  and 
simple  explanations.  The  early  stages  require  the  new  ideas  and 
facts  to  be  put  like  pictures  before  the  pupil.  Rigid,  formulated, 

1  Professor  W.  W.  White's  System  of  Training  the  Memory  will  greatly  benefit 
iachers  who  possess  poor  memories. 


[U1TI7EESIT7] 


12  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

square  statements  cannot  find  their  way  with  their  corners  into  the 
little  tortuous  windings  of  the  little  mind  with  all  its  blind  mazes, 
passages  that  lead  to  nothing,  obstructions  of  previous  ideas,  mobs 
of  small  idolatries,  idolatries  of  play,  idolatries  of  day-dreams,  com- 
bined with  absolute  incapacity  to  bar  the  unyielding  thrust  of  logic 
in  its  fine  tissues." 

In  children  the  senses  and  the  observing  powers  are  keen 
and  active,  the  mind  being  principally  directed  to  the  per- 
ception of  the  qualities  of  objects  and  their  simple  rela- 
tions. Notice  how  readily  boys  and  girls  learn  new  games. 
How .  much  two  boys  will  see  in  riding  or  walking  on  a 
new  road  !  How  minutely  they  will  describe  a  fire  or  an 
accident !  What  good  observers  they  frequently  are  of  the 
habits  and  actions  of  animals  I 

As  the  mind  develops,  more  obscure  and  complex  rela- 
tions of  objects  are  considered.  Finally  at  maturity  (from 
twenty-five  to  forty  years  of  age)  the  reflective  powers  are 
most  active.  But  the  perceptive  and  conceptive  faculties  are 
not  at  this  period  thrown  aside.  The  man  of  science  bases 
his  generalizations  on  his  observations.  Darwin,  Agassiz, 
and  Asa  Gray  could  both  see  and  think  better  than  ordinary 
men.  Their  greatness  is  due  to  the  complete  development 
of  both  powers.  The  observation  of  the  child  is  different 
from  that  of  the  man.  The  child's  observation  is  largely 
that  of  perception  ;  that  of  the  man,  of  reason. 

2.    Childhood  the  Best  Time  to  cultiTate  Intelligent  Obserration. 

For  the  teacher  to  cultivate  intelligent  observation,  to  a 
Urge  extent  even  in  the  grammar  grade,  is  more  rational 
than  to  cram  the  memory  with  words  without  meaning. 
The  teacher  can  do  this  by  teaching  geography  and  history, 


INTELLIGENT  OBSERVATION  13 

as  far  as  practical,  through  pictures,  maps,  charts,  and 
specimens,  and  by  encouraging  observations  of  nature. 
These  observations  should  be  planned  and  directed,  and 
reports  called  for,  either  in  writing  or  by  oral  recitation. 

Side  by  side  with  this  observation  through  the  eye,  should 
be  cultivated  by  the  teacher  the  observation  of  the.  meaning 
of  words  and  their  proper  employment,  in  order  to  describe 
accurately  and  intelligently. 

No  study  affords  better  opportunities  for  developing  the 
observing  powers  than  geography.  If  a  teacher  make  the 
most  of  his  opportunities,  he  will  not  only  secure  grand 
results,  but  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing  that  he  is  teaching 
philosophically,  and  developing  the  mind  of  the  child  in 
accordance  with  metaphysical  laws. 

Teachers  need  constantly  to  study  the  child-mind  so  as 
not  to  attempt  to  convey  ideas  belonging  to  one  sense 
through  another.  Ideas  of  form,  height,  length,  color,  and 
the  like,  come  through  sight  and  touch  alone.  Forgetting 
this,  teachers  frequently  try  to  convey  to  the  minds  of  little 
children  correct  ideas  of  localities,  through  mere  verbal 
descriptions,  addressed  to  the  ear,  and  wonder  why  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  are  so  listless,  and  why  the  children  do  not 
make  good  recitation  thereupon.  If  a  child  has  never  seen 
a  mountain,  never  seen  a  number  of  pictures  of  mountains 
and  mountain  scenery,  how  can  he  understand  a  finely  given 
description  of  the  Andes?  and  if  he  does  not  understand, 
why  should  he  be  interested?  If  the  description  given 
recalls  no  concept  in  his  mind  of  the  thing  described,  time 
and  energy  are  wasted.  But  descriptions  with  illustrations 
are  always  interesting  and  valuable. 

A  vivid  illustration  of  how  new  ideas  come  into  the  mind 


14  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

was  recently  afforded  the  author  while  reading  Dr.  Hale's 
interesting  book,  "  The  Seven  Cities  of  Spain."  In  one  chap- 
ter he  refers  to  the  "  Alcazar :  "  this  he  calls  in  another 
chapter  "  an  imposing  pile  ;  "  on  another  page  it  is  spoken 
of  as  a  "  palace  ;  "  again  as  u  a  building  ;  "  then  in  another 
place  he  speaks  of  "  the  gardens  of  the  Alcazar."  No  clear 
conception  was  given  the  reader  by  these  expressions ;  and 
little  idea  was  realized  of  what  an  Alcazar  was,  till  the  pic- 
ture was  accidentally  found  several  days  later  under  the  word 
Toledo,  in  Appleton's  Encyclopaedia.  If  the  readers  of  this 
chapter  will  try  to  form  an  idea  of  an  Alcazar  from  what 
has  been  said,  and  then  look  at  the  picture  in  the  encyclo- 
paedia, and  compare  the  former  concept  with  the  latter, 
they  will  perhaps  realize  the  value  of  pictures  in  teaching 
children. 

3.    That  Sensation  and  Attention  precede  Perception. 

By  this  is  meant,  knowledge  must  be  Stained  before  it 
can  be  retained ;  it  must  be  both  obtained  and  retained 
before  it  can  be  used.  In  obtaining  knowledge  of  things, 
sensation  must  be  experienced  before  attention  can  be 
given,  and  both  the  sensation  and  attention  must  precede 
perception. 

These  fundamental  truths  are  constantly  violated  in  teach- 
ing, by  some  teachers  who  fret,  fume,  and  scold  because 
their  pupils  do  not  remember  operations  in  arithmetic  which 
they,  the  pupils,  never  understood,  for  they  never  were 
explained  and  illustrated.  These  same  teachers  wonder 
why  children  forget  the  names  of  capes,  the  length  of 
rivers,  the  locality  of  towns  that  have  no  earthly  interest  to 
these  children,  for  nothing  has  ever  been  told  them  about 


CURIOSITY,  SYMPATHY,   AND  ACTIVITY  15 

these  places  to  create  an  interest,  not  even  the  beautiful 
meaning  of  the  geographical  names.  Adult  minds  usually 
act  in  the  same  way.  If  the  lecture  or  sermon  was  be- 
yond the  comprehension,  it  did  not  interest ;  then  it  was 
not  remembered. 

4.    His  Habit  of  Attention  cultivated  by  appealing  to  Curiosity,  Sympathy, 
•  anil  Love  of  Activity. 

There  are  very  few  children  who  do  not  have  a  natural 
curiosity  to  see  what  is  in  the  closed  box,  to  hear  the  end 
of  the  story,  to  know  more  about  the  subject.  A  little 
information  in  reference  to  the  camel  creates  a  curiosity,  or 
desire,  to  learn  more  about  the  "ship  of  the  desert."  By 
this  information,  the  skilful  teacher  creates  a  curiosity  to 
learn  about  the  desert,  and  that  knowledge  of  the  desert 
creates  a  curiosity  to  know  something  of  Africa,  the  home 
of  the  camel  and  of  the  desert.  If  the  teacher  uses 
pictures,  maps,  and  charts  which  appeal  to  the  eye  in  impart- 
ing this  information  in  a  way  understood  by  the  child,  the 
curiosity  never  flags,  and  the  attention  is  satisfactory. 

Sympathy  is  another  great  help  in  securing  attention. 
Hearty  interest  in  the  subject  manifested  by  the  teacher 
secures  the  attention  of  the  pupil  almost  unconsciously. 
This  was  one  secret  of  Agassiz'  power  as  a  teacher. 

Madame  Necker  says,  — 

"The  idea  that  we  are  constantly  occupied  about  him  may  excite 
his  gratitude,  but  it  will  not  determine  the  direction  of  his  inclina- 
tions. But  if  children  see  that  our  interest  is  awakened,  and  our 
curiosity  excited,  by  the  idea  of  making  some  new  observation,  or 
ascertaining  some  new  fact,  they  will  soon  try  to  anticipate  our 
discoveries." 


1 6  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

It  has  been  our  custom  for  years  to  study  with  the 
children  in  geography,  history,  etc.  The  results  have  been 
most  gratifying.  In  giving  out  the  lesson,  do  not  say, 
"  You  may  take,"  but  "We  will  take  climate  for  the  next 
lesson."  When  the  hour  for  recitation  comes,  ask  first, 
'"  Now  what  have  we  learned?"  Be  sure  to  give  due  credit 
for  new  facts.  Be  sure  also  to  have  some  interesting  facts 
to  relate,  not  generally  known,  to  show  that  you,  the  teacher, 
have  been  studying  with  your  pupils. 

The  well-known  activity  of  children  can  be  much  more 
easily  directed  than  repressed  ;  and  when  directed  it  becomes 
a  source  of  great  pleasure,  and  helps  to  fix  the  attention  in 
the  closest  manner. 

This  activity  may  be  classified  as  that  of  the  Ear,  of  the 
Eye,  of  tJie  Hand. 

The  teacher  can  always  direct  that  of  the  ear  by  asking 
questions.  The  topical  study  of  a  subject  does  not  mean 
the  use  only  of  topical  recitation.  The  topical  recitation 
should  be  freely  used  in  review,  used  more  in  upper  classes 
than  in  lower,  used  somewhat  in  all  grades ;  but  the  child's 
mental  activity  requires  also  short,  sharp,  direct,  quickly 
given  questions,  so  that  every  one  in  the  class  can  think 
out  the  correct  answer.  The  question  must  be  asked  before 
the  pupil  is  called  to  answer,  in  order  that  all  may  think  the 
answer.  Teachers  very  commonly  violate  this  order,  and 
wonder  why  the  pupils  are  not  more  interested.  These 
questions  should  be  of  two  kinds,  —  first,  those  in  relation 
to  the  bare  facts  of  the  lesson ;  second,  those  in  reference  to 
the  relation  of  these  facts  to  cause  and  effect,  in  reference 
to  the  why,  in  reference  to  comparison  by  similarity  and 
by  contrast. 


ACTIVITY  OF  EYE  AND  HAND  17 

Some  children  will  answer  well  the  first  kind  of  questions, 
and  utterly  fail  on  the  second.  Girls  frequently  answer  the 
first  better  than  boys,  while  boys  usually  reason  and  think 
better  than  they  remember  the  book.  The  why  questions 
should  be  interspersed  with  the  fact  questions, .  and  not 
bunched  at  the  end  or  beginning  of  the  recitation. 

The  activity  of  the  eye  is  readily  directed  by  the  teacher's 
use  of  pictures,  charts,  and  the  blackboard.  The  success 
of  kindergarten  schools  is  largely  due  to  directing  this 
activity  of  the  eye  and  hand.  Grammar-school  teachers 
make  a  serious  mistake  in  teaching,  and  show  their  com- 
plete ignorance  of  the  child-mind,  when  they  suppose  this 
activity  of  the  eye  and  hand  ceases  at  the  age  of  nine  or 
ten  years.  It  will  be  much  safer  to  place  the  limit  at 
twenty.  In  fact,  it  never  wJiolly  ceases. 

The  methods  of  directing  the  activity  of  the  eye  are  fully 
given  in  the  chapter  on  Pictures  and  Objects.  In  passing 
we  only  need  quote  a  few  authorities. 

Professor  Calderwood  says,  — 

"  Children  are  most  susceptible  of  what  comes  through  the  senses. 
It  is  therefore  a  great  point  gained,  when  the  eyes  as  well  as  the  ears 
of  the  pupils  can  be  kept  in  exercise  during  the  lesson.  To  reach 
the  mind  by  do'uble  avenues  at  the  same  moment,  is  to  increase  the 
chance  of  success." 

Pestalozzi  says,  — 

"There  are  scarcely  any  circumstances  in  which  the  want  of 
application  in  children  does  not  proceed  from  the  want  of  interest. 
...  To  change  all  this,  we  must  adopt  a  better  mode  of  instruction, 
by  which  the  children  are  less  left  to  themselves,  less  thrown  upon 
unwelcome  employments  of  passive  listening,  but  more  aroused  by 
questions,  animated  by  illustrations,  interested  and  won  by  kindness." 


1 8  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Fitch  says,  — 

"No  amount  of  care,  inventiveness,  and  forethought  which  you 
are  able  to  devote  to  illustration  will  be  wasted." 

Teachers  should  remember,  all  psychologists  agree  that 
sight  takes  the  lead  as  the  channel  of  perception.  Sully 
says,  — 

"  Since  sight  is  the  most  important  and  the  most  discriminating  of 
the  senses,  we  find  that  visual  percepts  are  better  recalled  than  any 
others.  The  capability  of  representing  an  object  or  event  some  time 
after  it  has  been  perceived,  depends  on  the  force  with  which  the 
impression  was  stamped  upon  the  mind.  A  bright  object  distinctly 
seen  will  be  recalled  better  than  a  dull  one  obscurely  seen.  We 
recall  the  appearance  of  a  place  we  have  actually  seen,  better  than 
one  shown  to  us  in  a  picture,  and  we  recall  the  picture  more  easily 
than  the  words  describing  the  same  place.'* 

Spencer  says,  — 

"The  child's  restless  observation,  instead  of  being  ignored  or 
checked,  should  be  diligently  ministered  to,  and  made  as  accurate  as 
possible." 

Comenius  was  perhaps  one  of  the  first,  two  hundred  years 
ago,  to  announce  the  idea  of  directing  the  activity  of  the 
hands  in  children,  in  order  to  secure  attention,  awaken 
interest,  and  so  lead  to  learning.  In  his  "  Orbis  Pictus  "  he 
says,  "  Let  things  which  have  to  be  done  be  learned  by 
doing  them."  Both  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel  insisted  upon 
self-activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  A  harmonious  devel- 
opment of  the  human  powers  requires  not  only  assimilation, 
but  also  production.  The  development  of  the  expressive 
faculties  includes  the  power  of  giving  utterance  with  the 
organs  of  speech,  and  also  with  the  hands. 


tH£  SIGN   FOR  TH£  THING  I<) 

This  hand  energy  can  be  utilized  by  the  children  in 
writing,  drawing,  moulding,  and  sewing.  How  these  acquire- 
ments (except  the  last)  are  to  be  employed  in  geography, 
will  be  shown  in  various  portions  of  this  book. 

5.    Not  Easy  for  the  Child  to  classify,  analyze,  combine,  or  deduce. 

To  refer  our  knowledge  to  general  principles,  is  to  classify 
it.  Unless  our  knowledge  is  classified,  it  will  not  be  easily 
remembered,  any  more  than,  among  papers  thrown  promis- 
cuously together,  the  desired  one  can  be  readily  found  when 
needed  by  lawyer,  teacher,  or  merchant. 

Children  easily  observe,  perceive,  and  remember  single 
facts.  A  large  part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  to  help  the 
child  arrange  and  classify  in  proper  logical  order  these 
facts,  and  then  deduct  general  principles  therefrom,  make 
comparisons,  or  seek  for  causes  and  results. 

6.    A  Child  apt  to  mistake  the  Sign  of  the  Thing  for  the  Thing  itself; 
the  Word,  for  the  Idea. 

The  map  of  Africa  he  thinks  is  Africa ;  the  crooked  line 
on  the  map  is  the  Niger  River.  The  sign  of  the  fraction  is 
the  fraction.  Even  adults  make  this  mistake.  Speak  the 
word  Lena,  and  ask  for  the  concept  formed.  In  nine  cases 
out  of  ten  it  will  be  that  of  a  crooked  black  mark  running 
from  south  to  north  on  a  map.  The  best  way  to  lead 
children  to  form  the  correct  concept  is  by  frequently  using 
pictures,  and  by  frequently  asking  for  the  meaning  of 
words  employed  in  recitation. 

7.    Re?ie>v  and  Repetition  necessary  in  teaching  Children. 

This  follows  as  a  corollary  from  the  preceding  statements. 
Review  work  should  be  conducted  very  differently  from 


20 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


advance  work.  The  time  is  quickened ;  only  the  great 
facts  are  touched  upon ;  comparisons  are  frequent ;  the 
pupil  must  now  do  the  work,  instead  of  the  teacher.  Topical 
recitation  may  become  frequent.  Interest  is  created  by 
new  ways  of  conducting  the  recitation,  competition,  allowing 
the  children  to  ask  questions,  etc. 

OUTLINE 
1.    The  Teacher. 


PRINCIPLES. 

APPLICATION. 

AUTHORITY. 

SOURCES  OR 
MEANS. 

i.  Ample   knowl- 
edge. 

Gives  confidence. 

Ascham,  Everett. 

Of  the  world. 

2.  Careful  prepa- 
ration. 

The     teacher's     ex- 
ample in  studying. 
Free  exchange. 
The  average  child. 

Thring. 

From  books  and 
nature. 

3.  Self  -activity. 

The  teacher  to  direct. 

Hamilton,  Payne, 
Jacotot,   Rous- 
seau. 

Landscape, 
products, 
specimens. 

4.  The  right  order. 

From  the  particular 
to  the  general, 
simple  to  complex, 
etc. 

Joseph  Payne. 

Memory. 

2.    The  Child. 


i.  Observation 
natural    and 

Cultivated  in  child- 
hood. 

Thring. 

The  intelligent 
teacher. 

strong. 

2.  Attention. 

Cultivated  by  appeal- 
ing to  curiosity, 
sympathy,  and  ac- 
tivity. 

Necker. 

Ear,  eye,  and 
hand. 

3   Reasoning  pow- 
ers weak. 

The  child  does  not 
easily  classify,  etc. 

Experience. 

Review,  repeti- 
tion. 

CHAPTER    II 

AIMS  AND  EELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


THE  elevation  of  geography  to  the  place  which  it  ought  to  hold  in 
the  school  curriculum  appears  to  me  a  matter  of  vital  moment:  first, 
from  the  value  of  the  subject  as  a  branch  of  knowledge  ;  and  secondly, 
because  it  offers  a  cure  for  what  I  conceive  to  be  a  radical  defect 
in  our  educational  method,  namely,  the  want  of  any  effective  disci- 
pline in  habits  of  observation.  ...  It  may  be  begun  on  the  very 
threshold  of  school  life,  and  may  be  pursued  in  ever-increasing  fulness 
of  detail  and  breadth  of  view  up  to  the  end  of  that  time.  No  other 
subject  can  for  a  moment  be  compared  with  it  in  this  respect.  It 
serves  as  common  ground,  on  which  the  claims  of  literature,  history, 
and  science  may  be  reconciled.  —  Archibald  Geikie. 

21 


BOOKS  FOR   CONSULTATION 


CKOCKER'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

GAGE'S  LIFE  OF  RITTER. 

GUYOT'S  EARTH  AND  MAN. 

HUXLEY'S  PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

JOHONNOT'S  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

MARSH'S  MAN  AND  NATURE. 

PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHIES,    SUCH    AS   THOSE    BY    GEIKIE,   GUYOT, 

JOHNSON,  MAURY. 
RECLUS'  THE  OCEAN;   THE  EARTH. 
HITTER'S  COMPARATIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 
RITTER'S  GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES. 
SCIENCE  PRIMERS. 
TYNDALL'S  FORMS  OF  WATER. 

22 


CHAPTER   II 


PART   I  — ITS   AIMS 

TWO    PURPOSES  — QUESTIONS   IN    TEXT-BOOKS  —  MISTAKES  —  CARL  FITTER  —  SOURCES 
OF    KNOWLEDGE  — DEFINITION   OF  GEOGRAPHY 


PART   II -ITS    IMPORTANCE 

TWO  VIEWS— WORTHY  OF  CAREFUL  CONSIDERATION  —  VAST  PROPORTIONS  OF  PRESENT 
KNOWLEDGE—  FORMER  KNOWLEDGE  —  THE  HUMBLEST  I'UPIL  AND  HUMBOLDT  — 
GROWTH  OF  COMMERCE  —  GENERAL  CULTURE  —  GROWTH  OF  INTELLIGENCE  —  TIME 
WHICH  SHOULD  BE  GIVEN  TO  GEOGRAPHY 


PART  I 
ITS  AIMS 

BEFORE  we  can  intelligently  discuss  methods  of  teaching 
geography,  it  will  be  necessary  to   consider  what  geog- 
raphy is,  its  real  aims,  the  objects  to  be  constantly  sought  in 
teaching  it,  and  its  relative  importance  to  other  studies.- 

In  teaching  languages  and  mathematics  there  are  two 
distinct  purposes  always  in  mind, — the  practical  applica- 
tion of  these  studies,  and  the  indirect  mental  discipline 
afforded  in  studying  them  ;  the  second  being  more  important 
than  the  first.  Since  geography  deals  so  largely  with  facts, 
and  since  it  is  not  so  much  a  science  in  itself  as  it  is  a 
collection  of  facts  and  principles  taken  from  various  other 
sciences,  the  main  object  in  teaching  it  has  apparently  been, 
in  the  past,  simply  to  impart,  in  the  shortest  possible  time, 

23 


24  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

a  knowledge  of  the  two  least  important  facts,  —  namely, 
locality  and  bare  statistics. 

Most  of  the  text-books  in  geography  denominated  "  brief," 
or  "-shorter  courses,"  seem  to  be  merely  combinations  of 
atlases  and  dictionaries,  making  the  height  of  mountains, 
the  length  of  rivers,  the  population  of  towns,  and  the 
locality  of  insignificant  capes,  more  prominent  than  their 
real  value  demands;  while  descriptions  of  the  greatest 
nations  upon  the  earth,  and  the  grandest  phenomena  of 
nature,  have  been  condensed  or  generalized  until  they  are 
as  interesting  for  young  minds  to  read  as  an  old-fashioned 
spelling-book.  The  sale  of  these  "  shorter  courses "  has 
been  immense,  because,  in  the  mind  of  many  school-officials, 
a  geography  is  a  geography,  and  the  smaller  and  cheaper 
the  better  for  his  latitude.  In  thus  making  geography  noth- 
ing more  than  an  ill-sorted  collection  of  dry,  unimportant, 
uninteresting  facts  to  be  memorized,  several  serious  mistakes 
have  been  made. 

It  is  a  very  serious  mistake  to  suppose  that  these  bare 
facts  of  geography,  such  as  are  contained  in  the  answers  to 
nine-tenths  of  the  questions  asked  in  nine-tenths  of  the 
present  text-books,  and  demanded  in  nine-tenths  of  the  ex- 
amination-papers, are  of  any  importance  after  they  are 
memorized. 

Taking  the  first  geography  at  hand,  we  open  at  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and,  selecting  almost  at  random,  find  in  Les- 
son 78  two  paragraphs  containing  the  following  questions  :  — 

III.  How  is  Elberfeld  situated?  For  what  is  it  noted?  For  Ms 
manufactures.  How  is  Hanover  situated  ?  Potsdam  ?  Stettin  ? 
Colberg  ?  Name  three  Prussian  cities  on  the  Oder.  On  what  river 
is  there  another  Frankfort  in  Prussia  ?  Jlf, 


TEXT-BOOKS  25 

VI.  What  was  the  capital  of  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland? 
Warsaw,  On  what  river  is  Warsaw  ?  What  other  place  is  situated 
on  the  Vistula?  Cracow  (kra'ko}.  In  what  country  is  Cracow? 
What  is  the  principal  branch  of  the  Vistula  ?  What  place  in  Austria 
is  on  the  river  Bug  ? 

This  is  a  fair  specimen  of  the  seven  hundred  and  ninety 
questions  asked  in  this  geography  upon  Europe.  How 
many  of  the  answers  to  those  questions  are  worth  remem- 
bering after  they  are  learned  ?  In  another  geography,  some 
of  the  most  interesting  portions  in  the  descriptive  chapter 
on  Africa  are  the  following  :  — 

24.  Abyssinia    lies   south-east    of   Nubia.     It    is    a    mountainous 
plateau  of  great  height.     The  Abyssinians  are  Christians. 

25.  The  Sahara  is  very  sparsely  inhabited,  and  contains  no  States. 
The  various  tribes  of  Moors,  Tuaregs,  and  Tebus,  who  inhabit  the 
oases,  or  roam  over  the  country  without  fixed  habitations,  are  gov- 
erned by  chiefs. 

27.  Cape  Colony,  a  British  possession,  lies  south  of  the  Orange 
River.  The  climate  is  mild.  Wheat,  wool,  and  wine  are  the  chief 
products.  Cape  Town  is  the  capital. 

How  useless,  nay  worse,  how  cruel,  it  is  to  place  before 
young,  imaginative,  active,  sight-and-picture-loving  children, 
such  stupid,  good-for-nothing,  and  uninteresting  facts  as 
the  above,  when  on  every  hand  can  be  found  so  much 
of  story,  incident,  personal  adventure,  travel,  description, 
physical  and  political  information,  comparison,  and  science, 
capable  of  both  interesting  and  benefiting  these  same  wide- 
awake children  !  Yet,  in  a  large  number  of  our  text-books  on 
geography,  similar  jejune,  unimportant,  copula-and-attribute 
statements  of  the  different  countries  will  be  found  to  com- 
pose a  great  part  of  the  book. 


26  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

It  is  a  mistake  to  believe  that  pupils  possessing  a  fair 
degree  of  common-sense  will  be  especially  interested  in  the 
acquisition  of  such  encyclopaedic  information,  or  will  re- 
tain such  facts  even  if  once  memorized.  Scholars  who  have 
been  crammed  with  such  statistical  food  are  usually  heard 
to  say,  "  I  have  been  through  the  geography  several  times  ; 
but  I  never  liked  it,  and  I  cannot  remember  it." 

Another  mistake  arising  from  this  narrow  view  of  the 
purposes  of  geography  is  that  it  affords  to  the  mind  no 
mental  discipline.  In  the  memorizing  of  dry  facts  there  is 
no  appeal  to  the  imagination,  to  the  judgment ;  no  stimu- 
lating active  inquiry ;  no  presentation  of  cause  and  effect ; 
little,  if  any,  growth  of  the  mind  produced.  Yet  geography, 
rightly  defined,  rightly  comprehended,  and  rightly  taught, 
may  be  made  one  of  the  most  effective  educational  instru- 
ments within  the  reach  of  grammar-school  teachers. 

Geography,  although  professing  to  be  a  description  of 
the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,  has  too  frequently  been  treated 
as  though  it  was  only  the  science  of  the  where,  map-draw- 
ing its  chief  glory,  and  the  memory  of  words  its  only  means 
of  acquisition. 

In  contrast  with  this  narrow  and  bigoted  idea  of  geography, 
let  us  consider  the  view  of  Carl  Ritter,  the  greatest  of 
modern  geographers.  He  boldly  discarded  all  arbitrary 
geographical  systems,  and  started  with  Nature  herself.  By 
Nature  he  meant  the  entire  creation,  hence  he  commences 
with  a  simple  study  of  the  universe  and  the  'solar  system. 
He  calls  attention,  in  this  brief  resume,  to  the  fact  that  the 
earth,  when  compared  with  the  other  planets,  is  equally 
removed  from  every  extreme..  It  is  neither  the  largest  nor 
the  smallest,  neither  the  swiftest  nor  the  slowest,  neither  the 


RITTER'S    IDEAS  27 

warmest  nor  the  coldest.  This  medium  character  brings 
the  earth  into  harmony  with  the  system  of  which  it  forms 
a  part,  and  indicates,  perhaps,  that  it  is  the  only  one  in  the 
system  which  could  possibly  be  inhabited  by  man.  It  is 
thus  especially  worthy  of  being  studied  in  all  its  features. 

In  a  geographical  point  of  view,  the  world  becomes  the 
common  home  of  our  race  ;  not  merely  the  theatre  of  the 


Fig.  1.  —  Carl  Hitter. 

operations  of  Nature,  but  the  arena  for  the  development  of 
human  life  and  history.  Here  the  forces  and  laws  of  Nature 
are  displayed  in  their  variety  and  independence.  It  is  the 
field  of  human  effort,  and  the  scene  of  Divine  revelation. 
Geography,  then,  is  something  more  than  mere  description. 
It  should  teach  the  most  important  relations,  and  thus  be 
considered  a  science.  The  earth  should  be  studied  in  a 
threefold  relation,  —  to  the  universe,  to  nature,  to  history. 
Geography  may,  then,  very  properly  be  defined  "  as  the 
department  of  science  that  deals  with  the  globe  in  all  its 


28  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

features,  phenomena,  and  relations,  as  an  independent  unit, 
and  shows  the  connection  of  this  unified  whole  with  man, 
and  with  man's  Creator." 

In  studying  geography  we  should  look  upon  the  world  as 
almost  a  living  thing,  having  an  individuality  of  its  own. 
We  should  think  of  it  as  a  seed  sown  from  the  hand  of 
God,  filled  with  a  germinant  power  of  life,  transforming  and 
making  the  earth  more  and  more  worthy  of  the  noblest 
inhabitants.  The  science  of  geography  becomes  then  more 
important  than  the  knowledge  of  facts,  relations  more  valu- 
able than  descriptions. 

The  sources  of  this  geographical  knowledge  are  twofold, 
—  written  accounts  of  scientific  travellers,  and  continued 
investigations.  Personal  investigations  are  necessary  to 
understand  the  investigations  of  others.  "Wherever  our 
home  is,  there  lie  all  the  materials  which  we  need  for  a 
study  of  the  entire  globe."  Humboldt  corroborates  this 
view  of  his  friend  Ritter  when  he  says,  in  his  "  Kosmos," 
"  Every  little  nook  and  shaded  corner  is  but  a  reflection  of 
the  whole  of  Nature."  The  roaring  brook  is  a  type  of  the 
thundering  cataract,  the  outlines  of  a  little  island  suggest 
the  coast-lines  of  a  continent,  a  range  of  hills  reveals  the 
structure  of  the  loftiest  chain  of  mountains.  The  study  of 
the  district  about  our  home  also  helps  us  to  understand 
foreign  lands,  by  furnishing  us  with  types  and  units  of 
comparison.  Herodotus,  Polybius,  Strabo,  Ptolemy,  Hum- 
boldt, and  Ritter  all  studied  geography  in  the  world  of 
nature  rather  than  that  of  books. 

But  no  one  person  can  now,  as  formerly,  visit  in  a  lifetime 
all  parts  of  the  known  world ;  hence  he  must  accept,  to  a 
great  extent,  the  narratives  and  maps  of  scientific  travellers 


HUMBOLDT,  THE    TRAVELLER 


29 


as  authoritative.  To  read  the  many  excellent  books  recently 
published  in  English,  French,  and  German,  referred  to  and 
classified  in  this  treatise,  will  occupy  the  leisure  time  of 
most  persons  for  several  years.  Besides  these  books  of 
travel,  the  well-informed  teacher  of  geography  must  know 
something  of  the  various  sciences,  —  the  history  and  growth 


Fig.  2.  —  Humboldt. 

of  nations,  commerce,  and  the  laws  of  interchange  of  the 
commodities  of  all  climes. 

To  perceive  more  clearly  and  fully  how  broad,  compre- 
hensive, and  inspiring  Ritter's  idea  of  geography  was,  the 
reader  is  urged  carefully  to  read  the  Life  of  Ritter,  his 
"Geographical  Studies,'.'  and  "Comparative  Geography,"  as 
well  as  all  the  works  of  Professor  Guyot,  once  the  pupil, 


30          METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

always  the  friend  and  admirer,  of  the  great  German  geog- 
rapher. 

Ritter's  definition  of  geography  given  above  would  not 
he  adapted  to  grammar  school  use ;  but  its  essence  can  be 
expressed  in  the  following  brief  statement :  — 

Geography  is  a  Description  of  the  Surface  of  the  Earth  as  the 
Home  of  Man. 

In  depicting  to  children  this  home  of  man,  so  wondrously 
beautiful,  so  marvellously  fitted  to  supply  all  of  man's  wants 
and  administer  so  perfectly  to  his  happiness,  geography 
should  describe  in  simple  language  the  remarkable  laws  by 
which  the  earth  is  governed ;  it  should  show  the  peculiari- 
ties of  its  surface,  and  explain  the  simple  facts  of  daily 
occurrence,  such  as  winds,  rain,  ice,  and  snow,  in  order  that 
children  may  have  better  conceptions  of  man's  surroundings 
and  characteristics  as  affected  thereby.  It  should  associate 
towns,  rivers,  mountains,  and  natural  divisions,  with  the 
different  races  of  men,  with  their  industries,  commerce,  and 
occupations.  It  should  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  present' 
age,  and  make  prominent,  instead  of  long  lists  of  names  and 
localities,  the  characteristics  of  each  country,  the  flora  and 
fauna,  the  architecture,  the  business  enterprises,  some  of 
the  principles  of  commerce,  routes  of  travel,  the  growth 
of  cities,  varieties  of  scenery  and  climate,  the  distribution  of 
the  three  forms  of  life,  the  education  of  the  people,  and 
the  manners  and  customs  of  other  lands  as  compared  with 
our  own.  In  brief,  the  principal  object  to  be  sought  in 
teaching  geography  is  to  teach  humanity  instead  of  locality. 

When  scholars  leave  the  grammar  schools  they  should 
have  acquired,  in  addition  to  a  knowledge  of  the  essential 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY  31 

facts  of  geography,  the  ability  to  compare  one  country,  one 
zone,  one  river,  with  another ;  to  classify  and  arrange  addi- 
tional facts ;  and  above  all,  they  should  have  acquired  a 
taste  for  good  reading,  a  love  for  travel,  some  knowledge 
of  the  best  books  of  travel,  and  of  the  world's  wonders  and 
beauties ;  in  short,  what  we  may  appropriately  call  geo- 
graphical culture. 


PART  II 
ITS  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE 

Upon  this  subject  there  are  two  extreme  views.  Many 
look  upon  geography  as  worthy  of  very  little  regard,  atten- 
tion, or  time  ;  while  a  few  give  it  so  much  prominence  that 
it  overshadows  all  the  other  studies.  Neither  view  is  in 
accordance  with  a  true  harmony  of  grammar-school  studies. 
These  enthusiastic  lovers  of  this  study  are  so  rare  that  there 
is  no  need  of  taking  time  and  space  to  discuss  their  posi- 
tion. The  former,  more  numerous  and  more  tenacious  of 
their  views,  lost  all  respect  for  geography,  in  many  cases, 
through  the  wretched  methods  employed  in  teaching  the 
subject  by  their  early  instructors.  Persons  holding  such 
views  are  not  likely  to  succeed  in,  or  to  enjoy,  the  teaching 
of  this  study.  To  them  we  especially  address  ourselves  in 
this  chapter. 

Many  of  our  ideas  of  geography  have  come  down  to  us 
direct  from  the  Middle  Ages.1  Whatever  the  true  relation 
of  this  study  to  the  other  studies  may  have  been  in  early 

1  The  description  of  the  grand  divisions,  given  in  most  geographies  to-day, 
follows  the  same  order  in  which  Strabo  (24  A.D.)  set  the  pattern. 


32  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

times,  geography  to-day  is  certainly  worthy  of  the  most 
careful  consideration  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  school 
authorities,  being  itself  a  peer  among  the  other  studies.  We 
place  geography  in  this  position  for  the  following  reasons  :  — 

1.    Because   our   Present   Knowledge    of    the   World,   i.e.,   Modern    Geog- 
raphy, has  at  Length  grown  to  such  Vast  Proportions. 

To  realize  this,  we  must  glance  at  the  history  of  geo- 
graphical development.  Geography  is  a  comparatively  mod- 
ern study.  It  began  in  ancient  times  with  the  world  of 
nature  rather  than  books.  There  was  no  geographical  lit- 
erature when  the  Phoenicians  held  undisputed  sway  over 
the  known  world,  then  bordering  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Phoenician  boys  were  not  greatly  troubled  about  this  study. 
From  Himilco,  about  700  B.C.,  to  Stanley,  is  twenty-five 
hundred  years  in  time,  but  an  immeasurable  epoch  in 
advancement.  For  our  purpose,  this  time  may  be  properly 
divided  into  three  unequal  epochs. 

Herodotus,  on  account  of  his  brief  wanderings,  became, 
444  B.C.,  the  first  critical  geographer  of  the  Greeks.  Strabo 
travelled  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Rhone,  and  from  the 
Alps  to  Ethiopia,  and  for  this  was  looked  upon  as  a  modern 
Humboldt.  His  wonderful  knowledge  enabled  him  to  write 
a  book,  and  that  book  was  the  first  geography  of  which  we 
have  any  account.  In  it  he  expresses  his  firm  conviction 
that  the  Caspian  Sea  was  the  limit  of  the  earth  to  the  north. 
When  Ptolemy  lived  at  Alexandria,  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  he  possessed,  with  all  his  knowledge,  fewer 
correct  ideas  of  the  outlines  of  Scotland  and  the  real  posi- 
tion of  Ireland  than  a  child  does  to-day  in  a  Boston  primary 
school.  The  world  was  then  divided  into  two  parts,  —  tfie 


HISTORY    OF    GEOGRAPHICAL    KNOWLEDGE  33 

known  and  the  unknown.  The  equator  was  not  crossed 
till  1471.  Marco  Polo  was  the  Bayard  Taylor  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Prince  Henry,  the  Navigator  (d.  1460),  greatly 
enlarged  the  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  appropriately 
closed  this  epoch. 

Columbus,  with  his  brilliant  discoveries,  opened  the  second 
epoch.  His  grand  contributions  to  geographical  knowledge 
were  supplemented  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  the  Cabots,  Cabral, 
Ponce  de  Leon,  Balboa,  Cartier,  Davis,  Frobisher,  Magellan, 
and  a  host  of  others ;  and  yet  none  of  these  men  could 
have  passed  a  Boston  diploma- examination  upon  geography, 
because  so  much  of  the  world  was  then  still  unknown.  In 
the  seventeenth  century,  Hudson's  discoveries  carried  geo- 
graphical knowledge  still  farther  from  the  Mediterranean. 
Australia  was  added  to  the  list  of  continents.  New  Zealand 
and  Van  Diemen's  Land  were  discovered  and  named.  At 
the  close  of  this  century,  La  Salle  descended  the  Mississippi. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  new  portions  of  the  world  were 
made  known  by  Cook's  three  celebrated  voyages,  and  the 
labors  in  Africa  of  Bruce  and  Mungo  Park.  At  the  end  of 
this  second  epoch,  geographical  knowledge  embraced  a 
large  part  of  the  inhabited  world,  but  there  remained  por- 
tions of  continents  and  more  distant  regions  still  largely 
unknown , 

These  unknown  regions  were  situated  principally  in  trop- 
ical Africa  and  the  frigid  zones.  Through  the  noble  and 
heroic  efforts  of  Livingstone,  Burton,  Grant,  Speke,  Baker, 
Miss  Tinne,  Cameron,  Stanley,  and  many  others,  the  long- 
debated  problems  of  the  hydrographic  systems  of  Central 
Africa  have  been  forever  settled.  The  Mountains  of  the 
Moon  no  longer  cross  the  continent  from  east  to  west,  as 


34  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

in  our  boyish  days.  The  Nile,  Zambesi,  and  Congo  have 
each  a  source  and  a  course  as  well  as  a  mouth.  All  we 
need  to  know  about  the  polar  regions  has  been  revealed  to 
us  in  the  explorations  and  expeditions  during  the  last  forty 
years  under  Kane,  Ross,  Belcher,  McClintock,  McClure, 
Dr.  Hayes,  Capt.  Hall,  Capt.  Nares,  Professor  Nordenskjold, 
De  Long's  party,  and  Lieut.  Greely.  The  humblest  pupil 
in  our  common  schools  is  now  taught  more  facts  connected 
with  these  regions  than  the  great  Humboldt  knew  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  The  surface  of  the  land  and  water 
masses  have  been  now  so  thoroughly  explored  that  there 
remains  only  the  bottoms  of  the  oceans  for  men  to  investi- 
gate, and  these  sections  are  now  being  carefully  studied. 
(See  "  Voyage  of  the  Challenger.")  Is  not  a  study  with 
such  an  historical  growth  as  this,  and  with  so  extensive  a 
field  for  consideration,  an  important  one  ? 

2.    Because  of  the  Recent  Rapid  Growth  of  Commerce. 

Steamships  and  railroads  have  brought  the  nations  into 
closer  relations  with  each  other.  The  inventions  of  the 
telegraph  and  telephone  have  made  business  world-wide. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  century  there  was  little  international 
communication  or  commercial  enterprise.  Nations  lived 
by  themselves  and  for  themselves.  The  improvements  in 
travel,  the  reduction  of  postage,  the  laying  of  cables,  the 
opening  of  the  ports  in  China  and  Japan,  have  so  stimulated 
and  enlarged  business  enterprises,  that  many  firms  now  have 
branch  houses  in  half  a  dozen  cities  belting  the  world. 
Steamships  plough  all  seas,  and  the  productions  and  the 
manufactures  of  the  antipodes  are  quickly  and  regularly 
brought  to  our  markets.  A  trip  round  the  world  is  no 


GENERAL    CULTURE  35 

longer  a  wonderful  feat.  The  United  States  is  so  situated, 
from  its  position,  its  natural  products,  and  its  skilled  labor, 
as  to  become,  of  a  certainty,  deeply  interested  financially  in 
this  world-wide  commerce  between  the  civilized  and  the 
savage  and  half-civilized  nations  of  the  world.  Hence,  for  a 
child  to  graduate  from  our  schools,  and  not  to  carry  away 
a  good  geographical  training,  will  be  every  year  more  and 
more  a  disgrace  and  a  lifelong  regret. 

3.    Because  it  affords  such  a  Splendid  Opportunity  for  General  Culture. 

Not  even  history  can  claim  for  itself  a  wider  field  of 
thought  and  investigation,  or  one  more  useful,  than  geog- 
raphy when  taught  in  the  proper  spirit  and  with  the  proper 
purpose  in  vie\v.  Geography  thus  taught  will  introduce  the 
child  in  a  pleasant  way  to  many  elementary  facts  in  history, 
astronomy,  physics,  physical  geography,  geology,  mineralogy, 
botany,  meteorology,  zoology,  and  ethnography,  although 
the  names  of  these  studies  may  possibly  remain  unknown  to 
the  young  student.  Other  studies  are  more  or  less  special 
and  restrictive  ;  this  study  is  all-embracing,  universal,  and 
it  is  very  properly  called  "  the  all-science."  Geography, 
taught  topically,  will  give  at  the  same  time  instruction  to 
pupils  in  spelling,  dictation,  writing,  oral  lessons,  composition, 
drawing,  and  reading. 

4.    Lastly,  Because  of  the  Present  Growth  of  General  Intelligence. 

General  intelligence  is  the  result  of  travel  and  reading. 
Geography  is  a  necessary  auxiliary  to  both.  Hundreds  of 
men  and  women  travel  for  pleasure  and  business  to-day, 
where  ten  travelled  fifty  years  ago.  Thousands  of  books 
are  published  and  read  to-day,  where  twenty  were  read  half 
a  century  ago.  But  the  growth  in  circulation  of  the  modern 


36  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

magazine  and  newspaper  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  growth 
of  general  intelligence  among  the  masses.  These  magazines 
and  newspapers  not  only  constantly  refer  to  the  most  inter- 
esting facts  of  geography,  and  the  most  distant  parts  of  the 
world,  but  they  have  a  special  department  devoted  to  this 
subject,  so  great  is  the  demand  of  the  public  for  correct 
information  on  these  subjects.  The  Americans  are  the 
greatest  readers  in  the  world.  The  ever-increasing  influence 
of  -the  magazine  and  newspaper  among  us  demands  that 
more  and  more  shall  be  accomplished  in  our  schools  in 
geography.  Any  study  with  such  a  history,  so  closely  con- 
nected with  the  great  commercial  enterprises  and  business 
spirit  of  the  age,  capable  of  administering  so  largely  to  the 
general  culture  of  the  pupils,  so  practically  useful,  is  exceed- 
ingly important,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  arithmetic  even  can 
more  than  hold  its  own  by  its  side. 

Yet  there  are  educationists  who  believe  that  "  less  time 
should  be  given  to  geography."  Since  the  introduction  of 
oral  lessons,  drawing,  and  music  into  our  schools,  the  amount 
of  time  given  to  some  of  the  studies  has,  of  a  necessity, 
been  reduced.  The  special  study  usually  selected  for  this 
curtailment  has  been  geography.  In  Boston  the  time  given 
to  geography,  according  to  the  supervisor's  course  of  studies,1 
is  half  the  amount  given  to  arithmetic,  two-thirds  of  what 
is  given  to  language,  and  nearly  the  same  as  is  devoted  to 
oral  instruction.  In  many  schools  the  amount  of  time  is  rel- 
atively less  than  this.  But  if  the  study  is  to-day  as  important 
as  we  have  attempted  to  show,  does  it  not  follow,  without 
further  argument,  as  a  corollary,  that  geography  should  re- 
ceive in  the  grammar-school  course  as  much  time  and  atten- 
tion as  any  other  one  study,  excepting  perhaps  arithmetic  ? 


CHAPTER    III 

WRONG  METHODS  vs,  THE  TOPICAL  METHOD 


THERE  was  an  undeniable  gain  when  exact  method  was  made  an 
essential  part  of  a  teacher's  professional  preparation. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Payne. 

37 


BOOKS   FOR   CONSULTATION 


BROOKS'S  NORMAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 
CURRIE'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  EDUCATION. 
FITCH'S  LECTURES  ON  TEACHING. 
GEOGRAPHICAL  TEXT-BOOKS. 
KIDDLE'S  How  TO  TEACH. 
SWETT'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

38 


CHAPTER   III 

PART   I— WRONG    METHODS 

THE  TEXT-BOOK  METHOD  —  USELESS    QUESTIONS  —  UNNECESSARY   MEMORIZING  —  MIS- 
TAKES  —  THE  CRAMMING  METHOD  —  NO-STUDY  METHOD 


PART   II— BETTER    METHODS 

THE  TOPICAL  METHOD  —  TOPICS  FOR  THE  FIRST  TWO  YEARS  —  TOPICS  FOR  THE  THIRD 
AND  FOURTH  YEARS  —  TOPICS  FOR  THE  FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  YEARS  —  PRACTICAL 
SUGGESTIONS 

PART  I 
WKONG  METHODS 

IT  is  customary  to  pnll  down  the  old  house  before  building 
up  the  new  one.  Following  the  same  order,  we  design  to 
point  out,  first,  some  of  the  most  faulty  methods  of  teach- 
ing geography,  in  order  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  better 
understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  right  method  subse- 
quently recommended.  To  call  attention  to  a  poor  method, 
is,  in  many  cases,  sufficient  to  lead  to  its  abandonment. 
Some  of  the  most  prominent  of  these  wrong  methods  will 
now  be  referred  to,  and  their  weaknesses  pointed  out. 

1.    The  Text-Book  Method. 

The  poor  teaching  of  geography,  and  the  wretched  results 
so  frequently  obtained,  can,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  be 
traced  to  the  exclusive  employment  of  the  text-book.  This 
slavish  following  of  the  book,  both  in  precise  order  of  sub- 

39 


40  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

jects  and  in  its  entirety,  was  perhaps  more  common  twenty- 
five  years  ago  than  to-day.  Some  teachers  have  emancipated 
themselves,  and  are  happy  in  their  freedom.  This  method 
made  it  very  easy  for  the  teacher,  as  far  as  instruction  went, 
and  very  hard  for  the  children.  Result,  —  most  scholars 
.came  to  dislike  geography  more  than  any  other  study. 
Since  then  text-books  have  improved,  and  pupils  using  the 
better  books  are  so  much  the  better  taught.  Methods  of 
teaching,  however,  have  improved  more  than  text-books ; 
and  still  hundreds  of  teachers  are  assigning  lessons  on  the 
old  plan,  and  reaping  the  harvest  of  unsatisfactory  results. 
The  principal  of  a  large  grammar  school  in  this  State  recently 
assigned  to  his  graduating  class  for  a  home-lesson  three  pages 
of  the  text-book,  containing  descriptions  and  map-questions 
in  reference  to  nine  of  the  Central  States.  The  scholars 
were  told  "  to  learn  carefully  the  entire  lesson."  To  do  so 
required  them  to  learn  the  answers  to  two  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  questions.  Many  of  the  statements  were  no 
more  interesting  to  a  Massachusetts  boy  than  the  following, 
which  is  one  of  the  two  hundred  and  eighty-seven  answers  : 
"  Fond  du  Lac,  Oshkosh,  Racine,  and  Jonesville  are  thriving 
towns."  These  are  some  of  the  questions  :  "  Keweenaw  Bay 
is  a  part  of  what  lake?"  "Where  is  Kaskaskia  situated  ?" 
We  are  afraid  such  extreme  foolishness  and  such  cruelty  are 
not  uncommon. 

In  Germany  we  understand  the  only  text-book  used  in 
geography  is  the  atlas,  the  teacher  supplying  orally  all  the 
necessary  information.  With  superior  teachers  such  a 
method  has  many  advantages,  but  in  most  schools  a  good 
text-book  is  a  great  blessing  to  teachers  and  scholars.  A 
fact  stated  in  a  text-book  is  just  as  important  and  useful  as 


PROMINENT  MISTAKES  41 

if  stated  orally  by  the  teacher,  and  much  time  and  strength 
have  been  saved  to  both  parties.  But  geographical  facts 
seem  dead  to  an  ordinary  child  when  met  with  for  the  first 
time  on  the  printed  page,  unless  the  living  teacher  breathes 
into  them  the  breath  of  life  by  related  incident,  explanation, 
anecdote,  comparison,  or  topical  arrangement.  The  judi- 
cious use  of  a  good  text-book  we  believe  to  be  better  than 
the  German  method. 

Teachers,  in  following  the  text-book  method,  invariably 
fall  into  three  prominent  mistakes,  viz.,  — 

(a)  Unnecessary  Memorizing.  — When  scholars  are  asked 
to  commit  to  memory  page  after  page  of  dry,  uninteresting 
descriptions,  bare  statistics,  and  the  locality  of  thousands 
of  places  not  associated  with  events  or  persons,  the  work  is 
exceedingly  irksome.     It  is  about  as   pleasant  and  profit- 
able as  it  would  be  for  a  teacher  to  memorize  consecutive 
pages   of  Webster's    Dictionary.     No   teacher   ever   asked 
scholars   to   learn   the   dictionary  by  heart ;   and   yet   our 
geographies  are  to  the  young  mind  what  a  dictionary  is 
to  an   adult   mind,  —  a   collection   of  empty  facts,  some- 
times bound  up  with  pictures,  valuable   for  reference,  but 
neither   attractive   to   read   nor  to   memorize.     When   the 
scholar  has  committed  to  memory  all  these  facts  found  in 
most  geographies,  of  what  use  will  two-thirds  of  them  ever 
be  to  him  ?     The  main  facts  of  geography  must  be  learned, 
but  there  is  a  vast  saving  of  time  and  force  when  the  teacher 
bears  in  mind  that  two  associated  facts  are  much  more  easily 
remembered  than  one  isolated  fact. 

(b)  The  second  mistake  consists   in    requiring   scholars 
to  learn  largely  from  the  questions  given  in  the  text-book, 
Scholars  taught  in  this  way  do  not  learn  to    observe    and 


42  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

think  for  themselves.  Ask  these  scholars  some  practical, 
common-sense  question,  as,  Why  New  Orleans  is  situated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River?  or,  How  bananas 
grow?  and  they  are  dumbfounded.  A  class  taught  by 
this  method  was  recently  asked  if  there  was  any  current 
in  a  river.  Only  one  boy  knew,  and  he  said,  "No."  In 
following  the  printed  questions,  the  scholars  rely  upon 
them,  and  do  not  learn  to  talk  or  write  connectedly  about 
a  subject. 

(c)  The  third  mistake  is  in  making  maps  and  map-ques- 
tions too  prominent.  In  some  schools  the  chief  end  of 
geographical  study  seems  to  be  to  acquire  facility  in  drawing 
maps.  This  is  making  a  means  an  end.  Scholars  are  to 
be  taught  through  the  map,  and  m&forthe  sake  of  the  map. 
Asking  too  many  map-questions  is  a  more  frequent  mistake. 
One  geography  (medium  size)  in  our  possession  contains 
seven  hundred  and  ninety  map-questions  upon  Europe, 
and  only  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  questions  on  the 
descriptive  part.  •  Another,  by  a  different  author,  a  revised 
edition,  contains  six  hundred  and  eighty  map-questions  on 
Europe. 

A  teacher  near  Boston  recently  asked  his  second  class, 
in  the  course  of  four  monthly  examinations  upon  Europe, 
four  hundred  and  fifty  map-questions.  Few  of  these  locali- 
ties remain  fixed  in  the  child's  rnind.  How  much  wiser  for 
the  teacher  to  spend  one-sixth  as  much  time  on  locality, 
and  more  on  surface,  climate,  commerce,  routes  of  travel, 
manners  and  customs,  works  of  art,  education,  and  litera- 
ture !  Locality  must.be  taught  to  some  extent  by  itself;  but, 
as  far  as  possible,  it  should  be  taught  through  association. 
When  pupils  become  interested  in  an  event,  a  person,  or  a 


WRONG  METHODS  43 

remarkable  phenomenon,  they  easily  remember  the  locality 
mentioned.  The  narrative  of  the  "Jeannette"  fixes  in 
mind  the  locality  of  the  New  Siberia  Islands  and  the  Lena 
Delta. 

Another  vicious  and  frequently  employed  method  is 

2.  The  Cramming  Method. 

Whenever  examinations  become  too  prominent,  or  teachers 
are  judged  by  results  alone,  as  in  some  of  our  largest  cities, 
there  is  a  temptation  to  cram  ;  but  it  is  just  as  detrimental 
to  pupil  and  teacher  in  geography  as  in  any  other  study, 
and  for  the  same  reasons.  Isolated,  disconnected  facts  are 
taught  without  regard  to  cause  and  effect,  or  order  of 
arrangement.  The  teacher,  instead  of  studying  Guyot  and 
Ritter,  studies  old  examination-papers.  The  end  and  ob- 
ject" of  study  seems  to  the  scholar  to  be,  not  to  learn  for 
the  sake  of  knowledge,  but  for  the  sake  of  passing  certain 
examinations.  The  after  pleasures,  benefits,  and  advantages, 
as  well  as  present  mental  growth,  are  all  made  subordinate 
to  a  temporary  success.  The  moral  effect  upon  the  pupils  is 
far  from  elevating.  They  soon  learn  from  the  teacher  to 
spend  more  thought  and  time  in  guessing  what  the  questions 
will  be  in  the  coming  examination,  than  in  learning  a  great 
law  of  nature,  or  the  facts  in  the  climate  of  a  great  country. 
The  two  methods  already  mentioned  are  very  apt  to  go 
hand  in  hand. 

But  a  worse  method  even  than  these  is  what  may  be 
called 

3.  The  No-Study  Method. 

It  affects  both  teachers  and  pupils,  but  not  always  both 
classes  at  the  same  time.  Many  teachers  believe  that 


44  METHODS  AND  AIDS  itf  GEOGRAPHY 

geography  (and  spelling)  can  be  taught  without  preparation 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.*  The  usual  results  obtained  in 
this  way  are  its  condemnation.  Let  a  teacher  make  a 
thorough  study  of  some  country  like  Australia,  and  then 
notice  what  a  difference  it  will  make  in  the  pleasure  of 
teaching,  and  the  interest  awakened  among  the  pupils. 

No  teacher  can  awaken  an  interest  among  his  pupils  if 
he  possess  none  himself;  he  cannot  be  interested  in  a 
subject  or  a  country,  if  he  knows  little  or  nothing  about  it, 
any  more  than  he  could  in  a  person  of  whom  he  was 
ignorant.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  bad  for  the 
teacher  to  make  great  preparation  for  the  lesson,  recite  it 
to  the  pupils,  and  ask  and  expect  them  to  do  nothing  but 
listen.  All  should  be  required  to  study.  Even  beginners 
in  this  study,  who  are  taught  orally,  shown  pictures,  and 
taken  on  imaginary  journeys,  should  also  have  something  to 
learn,  to  remember,  and  to  recite.  This  may  be  written  on 
the  blackboard,  if  text-books  are  wanting,  and  learned 
therefrom  by  the  pupils. 


PART  II 
BETTER  METHODS 

According  to  the  classification  given  by  Professor  Brooks 
in  his  excellent  book  entitled  "  Normal  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing," there  are  four  correct  methods  of  teaching  the  noble 
science  of  geography,  (i)  The  Analytic  Method,  which 
begins  with  the  world  as  a  whole,  and  passes  by  successive 
divisions  down  to  the  State,  county,  town,  or  city  in  which 


VARIOUS  METHODS  45 

we  reside;  (2)  The  Synthetic,  which  begins  at  the  smaller 
division,  as  a  schoolhouse,  yard,  town,  county,  etc.,  and 
passes  by  successive  enlargements  to  the  surface  of  the 
world  ;  (3)  The  Inductive,  which  begins  with  the  particular 
facts  of  science,  and  passes  to  their  classification  into  sys- 
tems ;  and  (4)  The  Deductive,  which  seizes  upon  the  laws  or 
general  characteristics  of  a  group  of  facts,  and  passes  to  the 
particulars  embraced  under  these  laws.  This  last  method 
is  more  than  analytic.  It  not  only  goes  from  the  whole 
to  its  parts,  but  from  the  general  to  the  particular'.  It  is 
not  our  purpose  to  discuss  now  the  relative  value,  or  the 
proper  employment,  of  these  methods.  We  seek  the  more 
practical. 

Whether  the  method  of  teaching  the  whole  subject  of 
geography  be  analytic,  synthetic,  or  inductive,  we  recom- 
mend, in  place  of  following  the  text-book, 

THE  TOPICAL   METHOD   OF  STUDY 

We  do  this  with  much  confidence,  after  years  of  experi- 
ment and  diligent  search  for  light  on  this  subject,  because 
it  is  the  best  method  thus  far  found  by  which  to  create  un- 
bounded interest  among  pupils  in  this  study,  and  because  it 
enables  the  teacher  to  instruct  with  satisfaction  and  pleasure. 
When  the  carpenter  builds  a  house  he  finds  it  necessary  to 
have  the  architect  furnish  him  with  certain  plans  for  his 
guidance  and  constant  inspection.  In  like  manner  the 
teacher  and  his  pupils,  in  following  through  the  delightful 
paths  of  the  topical  study  of  geography,  will  require  a  care- 
fully and  properly  arranged  list  of  topics  for  direction  and 
help,  and  also  to  prevent  wandering  and  loss  of  time. 

Excellent  sets  of  topics  for  geographical  study  are  given 


46 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


in  numerous  educational  works.  One  of  the  best  and  most 
comprehensive  has  been  arranged  by  Professor  Guyot,  and 
can  be  obtained  from  his  publishers. 

Classes  just  commencing  the  study  need  a  very  simple 
and  short  arrangement  of  topics.  The  following  will  prob- 
ably be  found  difficult  and  extended  enough  for  beginners. 

SCHEDULE    OF  TOPICS.     No.  I. 

(For"  the  first  two  years  of  study.} 

1.  Position  on  Globe. 

2.  Names,  Capitals,  and  Principal  Towns. 

3.  Mountains. 

4.  Rivers,  and  other  Bodies  of  Water. 

5.  Climate. 

[  Vegetable. 

6.  Life.       {    Animal. 

(.  Human. 

7.  Productions. 

8.  Journeys. 


.     .     .  Comparison  throughout. 


Such  a  list  as  the  above  is  well  adapted  to  the  pupils 
during  their  first  two  years  of  geographical  study.  As  they 
advance,  a  more  extended  list  of  topics  will  be  needed,  and 
the  next  schedule  may  be  employed. 


SCHEDULE   OF   TOPICS.     No.  II. 

(For  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  study.) 

i.  Position,  Outline,  Progressive  Map,  etc. 

f  i.  Highlands, 
j    2.  Lowlands. 


2.  Surface 

3.  Drainage. 

4.  Political  Divisions. 


5.  Natural  Divisions 


\   3.  Profile, 
t  4.  Progressive  Map. 


1.  Border  Waters. 

2.  Projections. 

3.  Isthmuses. 

4.  Islands. 


SCHEDULES  OF  TOPICS  47 

f  i.  Causes. 

£   Climate S    2.  Peculiarities. 

t  3.  Healthfulness. 
(  i.  Vegetable. 

7.  Life • \   2.  Animal. 

t  3.  Human. 

8.  Productions. 

9.  Exports. 

10.  Imports. 

11.  Prominent  Cities. 

12.  Journeys. 

13.  Comparisons.     Throughout  on  every  topic. 


In  teaching  by  topics,  the  globe  and  the  map  are  in 
constant  requisition.  Teachers  and  pupils  frequently  work 
together  with  open  books.  The  young  scholars,  with  a 
little  help,  can  find  the  position  of  the  country  on  the 
globe  ;  its  direction  from  our  own  ;  its  comparative  size ; 
the  political  divisions  ;  principal  towns,  mountains,  rivers, 
and  various  bodies  of  water.  If  the  children  learn  to  name 
the  various  political  divisions,  towns,  mountains,  etc.,  in 
some  particular  order,  —  as,  for  instance,  the  countries  of 
South  America  thus :  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Guiana,  Brazil, 
Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Argentine  Republic  (Patagonia),  Chili, 
Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador,  —  it  will  greatly  assist  them  in 
remembering  the  locality  of  the  places,  and  turn  the  acqui- 
sition of  these  facts  from  drudgery  to  pleasure. 

In  the  last  four  topics,  more  assistance  from  the  teacher 
will  be  needed.  Nothing  will  give  greater  zest  to  the  work 
than  to  have  the  scholars  make  a  progressive  map  as  they 
proceed  with  their  study,  gradually  filling  it  up.  As  fast  as 
facts  are  learned,  they  are  written  or  printed  upon  the  map. 
(See  p.  114.)  This  is  a  most  effective  and  delightful  way 
to  impress  the  lesson  upon  the  memory.  If  the  scholars 
are  too  small  and  inexperienced  in  drawing,  to  sketch  a  fair 


48 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


outline  of  the  country,  the  teacher  should  supply  them  with 
prepared  outlines,  or  models  of  the  outline  cut  from  paste- 
board. (See  p.  87.) 

We  have  used  for  years,  with  pupils  averaging  from  thirteen 
to  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  following  list  of  topics  ;  and  we 
have  never  found  it  too  >  complicated  or  too  long  for  our 
purpose. 

SCHEDULE  OF  TOPICS.     No.  III. 

(For  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  of  sttidy.} 

1.  Brief  History.1 

2.  Striking  Characteristics.1 

1.  Hemispheres. 

2.  Zones. 

•   3.  Latitude  and  Longitude. 
;   4.  Shape. 

5.  Absolute  and  Comparative  Size. 
.  6.  Diagram,  Outline  —  Progressive  Map. 

f  i.  Ranges. 
|    2.  Separating. 

3.  Slope. 

f  i.  Mountain     ]    4.  Direction. 
Systems.    I    5.  Peaks. 

I   6.  Heights. 
I    7.  Volcanoes, 
t  8.  Analogies. 
I    2.  Plateaus. 
[.  3.  Deserts. 
f  i.  Plains. 
]    2.  Lowlands  on  Coast. 


3.  Position,  etc. 


i.  Highlands. 


4.  Surface 


2.  Lowlands. 


5.  Drainage  . 


3.  Draw  Profile. 
I  4.  Draw  and  Print  on  Progressive  Map. 

f  i.  Water  Partings. 

f  i.  Source. 
2.  Course. 

I    3.  Length. 

2.  River  Systems.     \         ...     .     ,  , 

i    4.  Navigable. 

I    5.  Branches, 
t  6.  Peculiarities. 

3.  Lakes. 

4.  Draw  and  Print  Names  on  Map. 

1  If  the  pupils  have  never  studied  the  country  before,  topics  No.  i  and  2  may  be 
used  at  the  end,  as  a  review,  the  pupils  to  do  most  of  the  work. 


SCHEDULE  OF  TOPICS.    NO.   III. 


49 


6.  Political  Divisions  . 


7.  Natural  Divisions  , 


1.  Named  in  Order. 

2.  Capitals. 

3.  Principal  Towns. 

4.  Print  Names  on  Map. 

1.  Oceans. 

2.  Seas, 
i.  Border  Waters.    <j   3.  Gulfs. 

|    4.  Bays. 

I  5.  Straits. 

f  i.  Peninsulas. 

Projections,  etc.  •{   2.  Capes. 

3.  Islands. 


3.  Isthmuses. 

.  4.  Print  Names. 

i.  Latitude. 

2.  Elevation. 

2.  Mountains. 

i.  Causes. 

4.  Slope. 
5.  Winds. 

6.  Moisture. 

7.  Currents. 
8.  Surface. 

2.  Peculiarities. 

3.  Healthfulness. 

'  i.  Vegetable. 

2.  Animal. 

i.  Races. 

2.  Population. 

3.  Occupation. 

4.  Language. 

3.  Human. 

5.  Manners  and  Customs, 
C  Literature. 

6.  Education.  •( 

Science. 

( 

Arts. 

7.  Religion. 

8.  Government. 

io.  Productions.  —  Printed  on  Progressive  Map. 


xi.  Commerce 


Foreign 

or 
Domestic. 


12.  Prominent  Cities. 

13.  Journeys. 

14.  Comparisons.  —  Throughout  on  every  Topic. 


1.  Exports. 

2.  Imports. 

3.  Commercial  Towns. 

4.  Routes  of    ji.  Land. 
Commerce.    [   2.  Water. 

5.  Peculiarities,  etc. 


50  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

As  a  class  advances  in  the  topical  study  of  geography, 
the  pupils  become  more  and  more  delighted  with  this 
method  of  learning  about  different  countries,  and  more  and 
more  anxious  to  enter  still  deeper  into  the  study.  This  is 
done  in  No.  III.  by  enlarging  the  subdivisions  of  the  schedule 
so  as  to  enter  more  fully  into  the  details  of  each  topic. 

In  the  schedule  mentioned  above,  great  prominence  is 
given  to  surface,  because  an  accurate  understanding  of  this 
subject  furnishes  the  key  to  the  understanding  of  the  next 
subject,  drainage,  and  also  explains  many  facts  connected 
with  the  climate,  the  life,  the  productions,  the  occupations, 
and  even  the  locality,  of  the  cities.  Hence  the  natural  order 
is  preserved  by  placing  surface  before  these  other  subjects. 
No  two  teachers  would  probably  agree  in  reference  to  the 
best  order  of  arrangements  for  some  of  the  less  prominent 
topics,  such  as  political  divisions,  striking  characteristics, 
natural  divisions,  journeys,  etc.  No  one  particular  arrange- 
ment of  these  subjects  is  essential  for  success  in  employing 
the  topical  method.  Political  divisions  may  be  learned  be- 
fore surface,  or  afterward,  as  the  teacher  prefers.  Com- 
parison, in  our  schedule,  stands  at  the  end  of  the  list ;  but 
the  wide-awake  teacher  will  make  all  possible  comparison 
throughout  the  study  of  the  country.  Any  teacher,  after 
these  hints  and  illustrations,  can  arrange  for  himself  a  set  of 
topics  which  will  probably  be  better  adapted  for  his  own  use 
than  any  list  made  by  another. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

When  a  teacher  begins  the  topical  method  with  a  class 
which  has  been  accustomed  to  study  almost  entirely  from 
the  text-book,  he  will  find  it  necessary  to  proceed  very 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  TEACHER  51 

slowly  at  first,  because  this  way  of  preparing  lessons  is  so 
strange,  and  different  from  memorizing  the  printed  page. 
The  pupils  are  at  first  obliged  to  learn  both  the  geographical 
facts,  and  also  to  learn  how  and  where  to  find  these  facts. 

It  has  been  our  custom  when  taking  up  the  topical  method 
with  a  class  unaccustomed  to  its  use,  but  which  has  studied 
geography  for  several  years,  to  have  the  class  supplied  with 
large  blank- books,  and  then  to  say  to  them,  "  Let  us  en- 
deavor to  make  a  new  and  better  geography  of  North 
America  (for  instance),  than  the  one  printed  in  the  text- 
book recommended  by  the  committee."  All  are  delighted 
with  the  plan,  and  enter  into  its  accomplishment  with  wide- 
awake zeal,  so  happy  are  they  to  do  something.  At  first,  the 
teacher  will  need  to  go  over  each  lesson  carefully  with 
the  class,  giving  assistance  wherever  and  whenever  needed, 
which,  by  the  way,  can  be  done  only  after  careful  preparation. 
Remember,  however,  never  to  tell  a  fact  which  can  be  found 
out  from  map,  picture,  or  table  of  statistics,  in  the  dictionary 
or  gazetteer. 

e.  g.,  Instead  of  telling  the  class  much  about  the  surface 
of  South  America,  show  them  a  physical  map  of  the  same, 
or  better,  a  raised  map,  or  better  still,  make  them  a  sand 
or  clay  map ;  and  as  they  look  at  it,  ask  them  questions,  or 
impart  information  about  the  highlands,  plains,  mountains, 
peaks,  etc.  But  the  names  of  the  mountains,  the  peaks,  the 
directions  of  the  mountain-chains,  etc.,  can  be  learned  from 
the  map,  by  the  use  of  the  eyes.  Again,  instead  of  telling 
them  what  capes  to  learn,  or  asking  the  silly  questions 
printed  in  most  geographies  about  the  capes,  direct  the 
pupils  to  make  out  a  list  of  the  most  prominent  capes,  writ- 
ing them  down  in  order,  beginning  at  some  fixed  point,  like 


OFIHB 

PBIITISSITYI 


52  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  north-west  corner  on  the  map,  and  going  eastward  ;  then 
call  upon  the  dullest  pupil  to  read  his  list,  and  by  and  by 
the  smartest  pupil  to  add,  or  correct  mistakes,  till  the  revised 
list  is  prepared  to  be  copied  into  the  blank-book.  Then  the 
class  can  be  drilled  in  learning  these  names  by  asking  pupils 
to  recite  them  orally,  name  them  as  another  pupil  points 
them  out  from  the  wall-map,  write  them  from  memory,  or 
write  them  on  the  outline-map. 

If  the  teacher  has  prepared  himself  as  he  should,  with 
several  other  geographies,  different  maps,  a  scrap-book,  a 
few  pictures,  books  of  travel,  specimens,  etc.  (see  Six  Years' 
Course  in  Chaps.  XL,  XII.),  he  will  be  ready  to  help  any 
discouraged  pupil  by  putting  into  his  hand,  at  the  right 
moment,  the  right  book,  page,  piece  of -paper,  picture,  or 
specimen,  or  to  read  some  additional  piece  of  information 
just  when  the  minds  of  all  are  anxious  to  receive  it. 

After  a  few  lessons,  the  pupils  will  begin  to  delight  in  this 
manly,  self-reliant  method  of  study,  and  before  even  the  first 
grand  division  is  finished,  the  class  will  surprise  the  teacher 
by  the  amount  of  work  they  can  easily  do  without  help. 
The  second  grand  division  will  be  almost  entirely  prepared 
by  them,  provided  the  teacher  can  supply  the  necessary 
books,  etc.  ;  and  as  fast  as  prepared,  it  will  be  learned  so 
as  never  to  be  forgotten,  while  the  learning  of  it  will  be  as 
enjoyable  as  a  favorite  game.  For  additional  practical 
suggestions  in  using  the  topical  method,  see  Chaps.  XIII., 
XIV.,  and  XV.,  on  North  America. 


CHAPTER   IV 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  TOPICAL  METHOD 


THE  rote-system,  like  other  systems  of  its  age,  made  more  of  the 
forms  and  symbols  than  of  the  things  symbolized.  To  repeat  the 
words  correctly  was  every  thing,  to  understand  the  meaning  nothing; 
and  thus  the  spirit  was  sacrificed  to  the  letter.  —  Herbert  Spencer. 

53 


BOOKS    FOR    CONSULTATION 


BROOKS'S  NORMAL  METHODS. 

CARVER'S  How  TO  TEACH  GEOGRAPHY. 

CROCKER'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

DEGRAFF'S  DEVELOPMENT  LESSONS. 

GEIKIE'S  METHODS  IN  GEOGRAPHY.  - 

HEWITT'S  PEDAGOGY. 

HOPKINS'S  EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY. 

PARKER'S  TALKS  ON  TEACHING. 

PARTRIDGE'S  QUINCY  METHODS. 

THRING'S  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE. 

WICKERSHAM'S  METHODS. 

54 


CHAPTER   IV 
ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  TOPICAL  METHOD 

DISADVANTAGES  —  FIRST  ADVANTAGE,  REQUIRES  CAREFUL  PREPARATION  —  THE  BEST 
PREPARATION  —  ILLUSTRATION  —  UNBOUNDED  ENTHUSIASM  —  STUDYING  AND  THINK- 
ING FOR  THEMSELVES  — EXTRACTS  — OTHER  MATTERS  TAUGHT  — STANDS  THE  TEST 
OF  EXAMINATIONS  —  QUESTIONS  —  PARTICULAR  TEST  —  MAPS  —  PRACTICAL  SUGGES- 
TIONS —  A  READING  HOUR —  SUBJECTS  ON  WHICH  THE  PUPILS  READ. 

WHEN,  sixty  years  ago,  Ritter  began  his  great  work  in 
geography  referred  to  in  Chap.  II.,  he  found  his 
fellow-teachers  slaves  to  the  text- book,  and  teaching  a  lifeless 
mass  of  facts  about  countries  and  places  :  he  introduced  the 
topical  method  of  study,  comparison,  classification,  original 
investigation,  and  observation  of  Nature  herself.  Guyot  in 
a  measure  has  done  for  America  what  Ritter  did  for  Ger- 
many. Both  men  deserve  the  earnest  study  of  earnest 
geographical  teachers. 

The  alleged  disadvantages  of  the  topical  method  of  teach- 
ing geography  are  so  insignificant  that,  in  passing,  only  one 
need  be  noticed.  It  is  said  that  this  method  requires  more 
time  than  the  question-and-answer  method.  This  is  usually 
true  of  the  first  country  taught  in  this  way,  because  the 
method  is  new  to  the  scholar,  and  the  amount  of  information 
given  is  so  much  greater  than  in  any  text-book ;  but  subse- 
quently there  is  considerable  saving  in  time  effected  by  the 
new  method.  An  enthusiastic  teacher  could  give  to  the 
topical  teaching  of  a  country  an  almost  unlimited  amount 

55 


56  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

of  time.  The  writer  has  known  two  months  to  be  thus  spent 
on  one  continent,  the  interest  of  the  class  never  flagging  for 
a  moment.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  known  two  conti- 
nents like  North  and  South  America  reviewed,  from  the 
work  of  previous  classes,  in  six  lessons,  and  at  the  end 
the  scholars  showed  more  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
countries  than  they  would  have  exhibited  after  a  month's 
tedious  study  of  the  text-book. 

When  the  amount  of  information  retained  by  the  pupils 
is  considered,  the  topical  method,  even  at  first,  is  the  more 
economical.  When  the  amount  taught  and  retained  is  con- 
sidered, the  topical  method,  as  soon  as  it  becomes  under- 
stood by  the  class,  requires  far  less  time  than  the  question- 
and-answer  method.  This  objection  is  therefore  of  no 
weight. 

The  advantages  of  the  topical  method,  like  the  beauties 
of  Nature,  are  new  and  fresh  every  morning.  Some  of  them 
can  only  be  mentioned,  and  only  need  to  be  mentioned  to 
be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  taught  in  this  way, 
although  they  may  have  little  influence  over  the  doubtful 
and  conservative.  The  topical  method  gives  the  teacher 
employing  it  the  greatest  pleasure  and  satisfaction  in  his 
work  :  it  lifts  him  above  dull  drudgery  and  mere  routine,  into 
the  upper,  crystalline  atmosphere  of  intellectual  enjoyment 
and  self-satisfying  work. 

Our  own  experience  with  this  method  of  teaching  has 
emphasized  the  following  as  the  most  important  advantages 
arising  from  its  employment. 


CAREFUL  PREPARATION  57 

1.    The  Topical  Method  requires  Careful  Preparation  on  the  Part  of 
Teachers  as  well  as  Pupils. 

A  large  part  of  the  poor  teaching  in  the  world  arises  from 
lack  of  preparation  by  the  teacher.  In  the  topical  method 
the  teacher  undertakes  to  supplement  the  book,  encourages 
questions,  and  stands  ready  to  answer  them.  He  must  then 
come  to  the  lesson  full  of  the  subject,  and  overflowing  with 
the  freshest  thought  and  the  most  recent  facts  arid  theories. 
To  find  this  knowledge  he  must  search  through  numerous 
books,  magazines,  and  newspapers,  cutting  and  collecting 
the  wheat  as  he  goes,  searching  for  cause  and  effect,  making 
comparisons  and  classifications  as  the  subject  suggests. 

The  best  preparation  for  teaching  geography  is,  of  course, 
.i-avel.  Humboldt  and  Ritter  were  the  greatest  geogra- 
phers ;  they  were  also  great  travellers.  A  teacher  who  has 
been  "abroad,"  "out  West,"  "down  South,"  or  even  to 
Montreal  or  to  the  White  Mountains,  will  teach  with  much 
greater  success  than  one  who  always  stays  near  home.  A 
study  of  nature,  even  about  one's  own  locality,  is  suggestive 
and  important.  The  salaries  of  most  teachers,  however, 
are  too  small  to  allow  extensive  travelling,  and  hence  the 
majority  of  the  fraternity  must  rely  upon  the  eyes  of  others 
for  their  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  this  science. 

Books  of  travel,  copiously  illustrated,  are  now  published 
in  reference  to  nearly  every  part  of  the  world.  They  can 
be  purchased  by  teachers,  or  clubs  of  teachers,  a  few  at  a 
time,  if  not  accessible  in  public  libraries.  An  extended  list 
of  such  books,  and  also  books  of  geographical  science,  will 
be  found  in  Chap.  XX. 

Among  books  of  daily  necessity,  both  for  teachers  and 


58  METHODS   AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

scholars,  we  place  books  of  reference,  such  as  Lippincott's 
Gazetteer ;  Browne's  Manual  of  Commerce  ;  Appletons'  and 
Chambers's  Encyclopaedias ;  Richardson's  School  Manual 
of  Modern  Geography,  London ;  Johnston's  Descriptive 
Geography;  Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel  (6  v.), 
published  by  Stanford ;  common-school  geographies,  the 
best  of  which  are  Guyot's,  Swinton's,  Harper's,  Appletons', 
Barnes's,  Our  World  No.  2,  and  McNally's  ;  and  geograph- 
ical readers  such  as  Scnbner's  for  young  scholars,  and 
Johonnot's  for  more  advanced  scholars. 

The  successful  teacher  must  not  only  know  where  all 
these  geographical  facts  can  be  found,  but  he  must  have 
them  at  his  command  so  that  he  can  stand  before  the  map 
or  the  blackboard,  and  conduct  the  recitation,  if  need  be, 
with  little  or  no  reference  to  books.  To  do  this  requires 
tact,  judgment,  and,  beyond  all  else,  untiring  energy  and 
enthusiasm.  If  it  were  proper,  the  writer  could  give  the 
names  of  a  score  or  more  of  teachers  who  have  so  high  an 
ideal  of  the  nobleness  and  possibilities  of  geography  that 
they  daily  make  such  preparation,  and  daily  reap  the  pleas- 
ure and  satisfaction  of  seeing  their  pupils  really  enjoy  the 
geographical  recitation-hour. 

One  of  these  cases  is  especially  worthy  of  mention.  The 
school  is  situated  in  a  New-England  city  at  some  distance 
from  Boston.  The  teacher  has  a  class  corresponding  in 
advancement  to  a  third  class  in  a  Boston  grammar  school. 
It  is  composed  principally  of  the  "  foreign  element,"  children 
from  poor,  miserable  homes,  without  books  or  the  comforts 
of  civilized  society.  A  more  difficult  class  of  children  to 
interest  in  geography  could  not  be  selected ;  yet  they  have 
a  most  remarkable  knowledge  of,  and  love  for,  this  study. 


TEACHING    BY   PICTURES 


59 


This  wonderful  interest  in  a  subject  frequently  deemed  the 
dryest,  is  owing  of  course  to  their  teacher,  and  what  he  has 
done  for  them. 

He  has  prepared,  at  great  expense  of  time  and  money,  a 
solar  camera  and  some  four  hundred  valuable  transparent 
pictures,  a  few  of  which,  at  a  lesson,  are  thrown  upon  a 
large  screen  in  front  of  the  scholar,  and  carefully  explained. 
Around  these  pictures  are  grouped  the  great  facts  of  geog- 
raphy ;  not  the  little  details  of  locality  and  statistics,  but 
the  soulful  facts  of  comparative  and  physical  geography. 
These  pictures  are  of  the  same  quality  and  excellence  as 
those  used  by  Messrs.  Stoddard  and  French  in  their  high- 
toned  entertainments.  The  pictures  are  shown,  on  an 
average,  about  once  a  week.  Think  of  the  influence  upon 
such  a  class  of  pupils,  of  seeing  week  after  week  the  most 
beautiful  pictures  that  art  and  nature  can  produce.  The 
unquestionable  success  of  this  experiment  shows  the  power 
of  pictures  combined  with  study,  in  the  schoolroom,  to 
awaken  an  interest  and  impress  facts,  and  warrants  a  similar 
use  by  combined  bodies  of  teachers  (to  reduce  expense), 
in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

2.    The  Topical  Method  creates  Unbounded  Enthusiasm  among 
the  Pupils. 

The  dull,  sleepy  boy  wakes  up  ;  the  most  indifferent  girl 
is  anxious  to  learn  in  this  new  way.  There  is  something 
for  the  fingers  to  do,  as  well  as  the  eyes,  in  copying  into 
the  blank-books  topics  and  information  given.  Each  pupil 
becomes  desirous  to  contribute  information  required  from 
newspapers,  from  other  books,  or  from  parents.  Scholars  no 
longer  dislike  this  noble  study.  On  the  contrary,  they  wish 


60  METHODS  AND   AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

to  study  it  more  than  its  proportional  time.  The  teacher 
sometimes  is  actually  obliged  to  check  their  enthusiasm, 
and  remind  the  class  that  there  are  other  studies  of  impor- 
tance besides  geography. 

3.    The  Topical  Method  is  Philosophical  and  Natural. 

It  appeals  to  the  understanding,  as  well  as  to  the  memory. 
It  begins  with  the  known,  and  proceeds  to  the  unknown. 
Subjects  are  taken  up  in  their  natural  order.  Position  is 
studied  before  surface  ;  elevation  before  drainage ;  climate 
before  production.  Children  are  pleased  with  comparisons 
and  sharp  contrasts ;  they  ask  for  cause  and  effect;  they  are 
hero-worshippers,  fond  of  personal  adventure.  The  topical 
method  naturally  leads  them  to  such  information. 

4.    It  encourages  Pupils  to  study  and  think  for  themselves. 

This  is  perhaps  one  of  its  greatest  advantages.  In  fol- 
lowing the  text-books  the  scholar  simply  commits  to  mem- 
ory the  words,  with  little  regard  to  their  meaning.  When 
studying  topically  he  memorizes  ideas  and  facts  which  he 
is  to  clothe  in  his  own  language.  He  becomes  a  searcher 
and  discoverer  of  truth.  He  comes  in  contact  with  other 
books,  and  soon  dispels  the  foolish  delusion  that  his  own 
particular  text-book  is  the  only  book  in  the  world  containing 
geographical  information. 

The  difference  between  the  two  methods  is  well  shown 
by  the  following  illustrations  from  school  life.  In  a  certain 
.  school  in  this  city,  the  "  fourth  class,"  which  had  studied 
geography  for  two  and  a  half  years,  was  taught  South 
America  by  the  topical  method.  After  the  work  of  teach- 
ing was  finished,  the  scholars  were  requested  to  write  what 


THE  TOPICAL   METHOD  6 1 

they  knew  about  that  country.  Below  we  give  two  extracts 
from  the  papers  then  prepared.  These  extracts  are  given 
just  as  written  by  the  scholars,  without  any  corrections. 

SOUTH    AMERICA    (a). 

South  America  is  a  great  peninsula  next  to  the  largest  one  in  the 
world.  The  only  thing  that  prevents  it  from  being  surrounded  by 
water  is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  a  narrow  neck  of  land  joining  North 
America  to  South  America.  South  America  has  no  large  gulfs  and 
bays  except  lake  Maracaybo  for  that  is  really  a  bay;  so  it  is  not  very 
thickly  settled  by  white  people.  South  America  being  mostly  in  the 
torrid  zone  has  a  very  warm  climate.  It  consists  of  three  mountain 
chains,  the  Andes  Mts.  Parime  Mts.  and  the  Brazilian  Mts.  and  three 
plains,  the  llanos,  selvas,  and  Pampas.  The  Andes  are  a  large  sys- 
tem extending  along  the  whole  of  the  western  coast.  They  are  a 
part  of  the  large  system  in  North  America,  and  are  very  steep  and 
dangerous  in  climbing.  But  they  have  an  animal  called  the  llama 
which  is  a  very  sure-footed  animal.  There  are  many  volcanoes  and 
many  cities  have  bee'n  entirely  destroyed.  There  are  great  many 
high  and  wide  table-lands  or  plateaus  among  the  Andes  and  many 
cities  are  built  upon  them  because  the  air  is  more  healthful.  Quan- 
tities of  silver  and  copper  are  found  among  the  Andes.  The  people, 
etc.  etc.  M A B . 

SOUTH   AMERICA   (b). 

South  America  is  a  large  peninsula.  There  are  high  mountains 
all  around  the  margin.  The  Andes  are  on  the  west,  the  Parimas  on 
the  north,  and  the  Brazilian  Andes  on  the  east.  There  are  high 
table  lands  among  the  Andes,  with  a  good  many  villages  and  towns 
on  them.  The  table  land  is  often  named  for  the  town  that  is  on  it. 
There  are  a  great  many  gold  and  silver  mines  among  the  Andes, 
Lake  Titicarca  is  the  highest  large  lake  in  the  world  They  get  a 
great  many  diamonds  from  the  rivers  among  the  Brazilian  Andes. 

The  three  principal  rivers  are  the  Amazon,  the  Orinoco  and  the 
La  Plata,  The  LTanos  are  along  the  Orinoco,  and  are  covered  with 
coarse  grass  in  the  wet  season  and  with  dust  in  the  dry  season,  In 


62  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  wet  season  all  the  rivers  overflow,  and  grass  grows  taller  than 
a  man.  There  are  herds  of  horses  and  cattle  feeding  on  the  grass, 
and  there  are  a  great  many  snakes  and  reptiles.  In  the  dry  season 
all  the  grass  withers  up,  and  all  the  herds  are  driven  to  the  moun- 
tains. All  the  snakes  and  all  the  animals  bury  themselves  in  the 
ground,  and  the  insects  all  die.  There  is  not  a  tree  to  be  seen,  except 
along  the  river  banks.  The  selvas,  or  wooded  plains,  etc.,  etc. 

C W S . 

Under  the  care  of  another  teacher,  this  same  class  studied 
Asia  from  the  book,  and  then  wrote  what  they  knew  about 
that  country.  Two  extracts  are  selected  from  this  set  of 
papers  prepared  by  the  same  scholars. 

ASIA    (a'). 

The  outline  of  Asia  is  very  irregular,  but  the  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays, 
do  not  extend  so  far  into  the  land,  as  those  in  Europe. 

The  principal  mountains  are  the  Himalaya,  Altai,  Thian  Shan  and 
the  Kuen  Lun. 

South  of  these  mountains  is  a  great  desert  plain  extending  from 
west  to  east.  It  is  made  up  of  salt,  salt  marshes,  sand  and  gravel. 
South  of  this  are  three  peninsulas. 

The  rivers  are  divided  into  three  classes,  those  which  flow  into  the 
Indian  Ocean,  those  which  flow  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  those 
which  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  climate  is  divided  into  three  classes,  the  northern,  southern 
and  central. 

The  religions  are  Pagans  and  Mohamedans. 

The  divisions  of  Asia  are  Asiatic  Turkey,  Asiatic  Russia,  etc. 

ASIA    (V). 

Asia  is  the  largest  of  the  five  Grand  Divisions.  The  Gulfs  and 
bays  do  not  extend  as  far  into  the  land  as  in  Europe. 

The  four  principal  mountain  chains  are  the  Himalaya,  Thian 
Shan,  Altai,  and  Kuen  Lun. 


THE  TEXT-BOOK  METHOD  63 

The  five  seas  on  the  Eastern  coast  of  Asia  are  Bearing  Sea,  Sea 
of  Ochotsh,  Yellow  Sea,  China  Sea,  and  Sea  of  Japan.  The  Ara- 
bian Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  on  the  southern  coast  of  Asia. 
The  rivers  flowing  north  are,  Obe,  Lena,  and  Yenesei.  The  rivers 
flowing  east  are,  Amoor,  Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tse-Kiang.  Those 
flowing  south  are,  etc. 

The  principal  commercial  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey  is  Smyrna.  Jeru- 
salem is  the  holy. city  of  the  Mohamidans.  Mecca  is  the  holy  city 
of  the  Jews. 

Asiatic  Russia  is  a  very  cold  country,  etc. 

These  scholars  were  between  ten  and  eleven  years  of  age, 
and  the  selections  are  taken  from  the  first  part  of  each 
paper.  The  characteristic  differences  between  a  and  a' ',  b 
and  b' ,  are  much  more  apparent  from  an  examination  of 
the  full  set  of  papers  than  from  two  selections.  The  first 
noticeable  difference  is  that  the  average  amount  written  was 
much  larger  when  the  glass  was  taught  topically  than  when 
taught  from  the  text-book.  This  shows  that  there  was  much 
greater  interest  in  South  America  than  in  Asia,  —  a  fact  con- 
trary to  the  common  experience  of  teachers,  when  the  coun- 
try alone  is  considered.  There  is  a  much  greater  difference 
in  the  facts  presented  and  the  language  used,  in  a  and  b, 
than  in  ar  and  b '.  In  the  one  the  text-book  was  closely 
followed  ;  in  the  other,  information  was  obtained  from  many 
different  sources.  In  the  former,  the  appearance  of  the 
country,  the  productions,  and  the  people  are  the  prominent 
topics  remembered ;  in  the  latter,  the  names  of  natural 
divisions  and  the  localities  of  places.  The  one  gives  us 
some  variety  in  the  sentences  ;  the  other  none,  is  and  are 
being  the  common  verbs  employed.  In  the  one,  an  intelli- 
gent knowledge  of  the  country  worthy  of  a  first  class  13 


64  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

exhibited  ;  in  the  other,  a  mere  memorizing  of  the  dryest 
details  from  map  and  description.  The  difference  in  the 
teachers  does  not  satisfactorily  account  for  this  vast  differ- 
ence in  results.  The  method,  as  well  as  the  teacher,  made 
the  great  disparity. 

5.    The  Topical  Method  enables  the  Instructor  to  teach  Something 
besides  Geography. 

Charles  Barnard,  in  his  graphic  description  of  the  model 
primary  school  given  in  a  recent  number  of  the  "  Century," 
shows  how  fully,  by  the  oral  and  topical  method,  some- 
thing besides  reading  and  numbers  is  taught  in  our  best 
Massachusetts  schools.  He  closes  his  article  with  this  sen- 
tence :  "  The  American  boy  from  the  new  schools  will  be  a 
master  at  many  trades,  because  he  has  been  taught  to  use 
his  imagination,  to  observe,  to  use  his  senses  and  his  mind 
in  a  workmanlike  manner."  « 

In  teaching  geography  on  the  same  plan,  by  the  topical, 
oral,  and  objective  methods,  the  pupil  receives  instruction 
and  practice  in  writing,  drawing,  spelling,  dictation,  reading, 
and  the  most  practical  kind  of  oral  lessons.  Better  than 
all  these  advantages,  this  method  assists  the  teacher  in 
elevating  the  taste  of  his  scholars  in  reading.  By  a  little 
effort  the  dime  novel,  half-dime  novel,  and  all  that  worse 
than  trashy  literature,  may  be  supplanted  by  books  written 
by  such  authors  as  Livingston,  Baker,  Stanley,  Knox,  Taylor, 
Abbott,  Greeley,  Kane,  Hayes,  Miss  Bird,  etc.  To  accom- 
plish this,  it  is  not  enough  for  the  teacher  to  recommend 
certain  books :  he  must  either  place  the  books  in  the  hands 
of  his  scholars,  or  he  must  supply  them  with  the  catalogue- 
number  of  those  books.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  obtain 


STANDS  THE  TEST  OF  EXAMINATIONS  65 

these  numbers,  as  any  teacher  can  learn  by  trying  to  ascer- 
tain the  correct  numbers  for  the  latest  fifty  books  on  travel, 
in  any  large  city  library.  Mr.  Cogswell,  the  excellent  super- 
intendent of  schools  in  Cambridge,  has  placed  teachers  and 
scholars  in  his  city  under  great  obligation,  by  printing  in 
his  report  for  1882,  not  only  the  titles  of  many  choice  books 
for  general  reading,  but  he  has  given  the  catalogue-numbers 
for  the  Cambridge  Public  Library.  It  is  to  be 'hoped  that 
other  superintendents  will  do  likewise. 

6-    The  Topical  Method  always  stands  well  the  Test  of  Examinations. 

The  length  of  time  during  which  impressions  remain 
fixed  upon  the  memory  depends  upon  the  degree  of  atten- 
tion given  to  the  subject,  and  the  interest  felt  by  the  learner. 
The  association  of  ideas,  especially  by  way  of  resemblance 
or  dissimilarity,  the  learning  of  facts  in  their  natural  or 
consecutive  order,  are  made  very  prominent  by  this  method, 
and  the  memory  is  thereby  greatly  aided.  The  writing  of 
information  in  blank-books  is  one  of  the  best  ways  to 
impress  such  information  upon  the  memory.  The  testi- 
mony of  hundreds  of  pupils  taught  in  this  way  invariably  is, 
that  the  topical  method  makes  the  facts  of  geography 
"stick." 

Examinations  in  geography,  as  well  as  in  other  studies, 
we  maintain,  are  helpful  to  teachers  and  scholars.  It  is 
wise  to  give  some  kind  of  a  test  at  the  close  of  each 
country  taught.  We  are  yet  to  find  a '  class  which  will  do 
less  study  on  account  of  the  expected  examination.  If  the 
pupils  are  young,  the  test  should  be  short  and  simple. 
Perhaps  one  question  —  Write  all  you  know  about  this 
country,  and  draw  a  map,  using  the  pasteboard  outlines  — 


66  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

will  be  sufficient.  In  the  higher  classes  a  severer  test  should 
be  given. 

In  Boston  schools,  scholars  thus  taught  always  pass  good 
examinations  upon  the  questions  presented  by  the  board  of 
supervisors,  because  this  method  creates  wide  intelligence, 
sets  scholars  to  thinking  for  themselves,  and  using  their 
imaginations  so  they  can  answer  indirect  as  well  as  direct 
questions  upon  the  countries  taught.  We  again  illustrate 
from  our  own  experience. 

During  the  past  year,  a  teacher  of  a  lower  class  requested 
us  to  examine  her  pupils  upon  Europe.  Twenty  difficult 
questions  for  that  class  were  prepared  as  an  experiment, 
and  given  with  the  consent  of  the  teacher,  both  of  us  ex- 
pecting a  poor  result,  if  not  a  failure.  These  were  some 
of  the  questions :  i.  By  what  route  would  you  go  from 
Boston  to  England?  2.  How  long  would  it  take  to  go  by 
steam?  7.  In  what  part  of  that  country  are  there  few 
mountains?  13.  How  does  the  climate  of  England  differ 
from  that  of  New  England?  18.  In  what  countries  of 
Europe  are  to  be  found  grapes,  flax,  and  olives?  19  and  20. 
Write  something  about  the  schools  or  the  people  of  some 
part  of  Europe,  or  write  out  an  imaginary  journey. 

The  average  age-  of  these  scholars  was  eleven  years ; 
and  the  average  per  cent  upon  such  questions,  eighty- 
seven. 

Recently  we  gave  a  similar  test  upon  South  America,  to 
a  class  taught  by  the  topical  method.  Experts  called  the 
questions  very  difficult  for  the  age  of  the  class  :  they  had 
studied  geography  two  years  and  a  half.  Several  of  the 
questions  and  answers  are  given  as  illustrations. 


TEST  ON  SOUTH  AMERICA  67 

2.  How  could  a  person  go  from  Boston,  or  from   New  York,  to 
South  America  ? 

"  If  they  lived  near  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  they  could 
take  a  vessel  from  the  ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  if  they  lived 
on  or  near  the  Pacific  coast,  they  could  take  a  vessel  from  one  of  the 
ports  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  or  if  they  lived  in  the  interior,  they  could 
take  a  vessel,  and  cross  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  one  of  the  ports  on  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America." 

3.  In  going,  what  ocean-current  would  be  crossed? 

"  In  going  from  Boston  or  New  York,  you  would  cross  the  Gulf 
Stream." 

5.  Tell  about  the  surface  of  South  America. 

"The  surface  of  South  America  in  some  parts  is  very  mountainous, 
having  on  the  western  coast  the  Ancles,  which  are  a  part  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  North  America.  They  are  very  high,  in  some  parts 
having  volcanoes.  In  among  the  mountains  is  a  large  plateau,  which 
is  a  thousand  miles  long.  It  contains  Lake  Titicaca,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  highest  large  lake  in  the  world.  The  Parime  Moun- 
tains are  in  the  northern  part  of  South  America.  They  are  not  so 
high  as  the  Ancles,  but  not  so  low  as  some  others  I  will  tell  you  about. 
The  Brazilian  Andes  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  South  America.  They 
are  very  low.  All  the  way  from  east  of  the  Andes,  as  far  as  the  Bra- 
zilian Andes  is  a  vast  plain." 

7.   Where  and  what  is  the  principal  water-shed? 

"The  Andes,  on  the  western  side  of  the  country." 

11.  What  capitals  on  the  western  coast  are  inland,  and  why? 

"  Bogota  is  in  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  and  it  is  in  the  cen- 
tre. Quito  is  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  and  it  is  situated  right  under 
the  Equator.  Bolivia  is  now  on,  or  used  to  be  situated  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Its  capital  is  Lopaz,  and  that  is  situated  in  the  interior.  Peru 
is  one  of  the  countries  that  has  an  inland  capital.  It  is  Lima,  which 
is  the  largest  city  west  of  the  Andes.  Chili  is  on  the  western  coast. 
Its  capital  is  Santiago,  which  is  very  near  the  Argentine  Confedera- 
tion. These  capitals  are  all  in  the  interior,  because  it  is  so  much 
more  healthy  there  than  on  the  coast,  where  it  is  moist  and  unhealthy. 
There  are  mountains  in  the  interior,  and  cities  can  be  built  there.'' 

12.  Describe  one  of  the  noted  plains  of  South  America. 


68  METHODS  AND  -AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

15.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  races  in  that  country? 

"The  whites  are  for  the  most  part  an  idle  sort  of  people,  fond  of 
swinging  in  their  hammocks  and  smoking.  In  the  settled  states,  the 
Indians  perform  most  of  the  labor.  The  negroes  were  brought  into 
the  country  for  slaves,  but  most  of  them  have  been  freed." 

16.  What  causes  affect  the  climate,  and  how? 

"All  above  the  thirtieth  parallel  of  south  latitude,  the  winds  blow 
from  the  east,  and  the  Andes  Mountains  being  on  the  west  side,  take 
the  moisture  from  the  winds  as  they  get  them,  so  the  country  on  the 
west  side  is  dry.  All  below  the  given  parallel,  the  winds  blow  from 
the  west,  so  the  country  on  the  east  of  the  Andes,  below  thirty  south 
latitude,  is  dry." 

18.  Tell  some  facts  about  the  growth  and  appearance  of  one  of  the 
natural  productions. 

"The  tree  from  which  coffee  comes  grows  to  be  very  high,  but  it  is 
usually  kept  down  to  about  five  feet,  by  cutting,  so  that  the  berries  can 
be  easily  picked.  The  fruit  grows  very  luxuriantly,  blossoms  and 
ripe  fruit  being  seen  on  the  tree  at  the  same  time.  The  berries  are 
red  when  ripe,  and  are  sweet  and  good  to  eat." 

19.  What  books  have  you  read  or  heard  read  about  South  America? 
What  pictures  have  you  seen  outside  your  text-book? 

"  I  read  something  about  South  America  in  Harper's  Monthly." 
"  I  have  read  the  book  called  '  The  Voyage  round  the  World,  with 
Sunbeam.' "  "  I  have  seen  the  picture  of  the  coffee-plant,  and  cocoa." 

20.  What,  persons   were    connected    with    the    history   of    South 
America  ? 

"  Columbus  discovered  South  America.  Bolivia  was  named  after 
General  Bolivar,  under  whose  careful  guidance  they  threw  off  the 
yoke  of  Spain." 

The  Examination 

in  the  graduating  class  may  be  divided  into  three  parts. 

In  Part  I.  the  teacher  selects  some  one  of  the  topics  of 
the  schedule,  as,  for  instance,  Surface,  or  Life,  and  asks  the 
class  to  write  all  they  can  upon  it.  This  is  a  grand  exercise 
in  composition.  In  Part  II.,  definite  questions  should  be 
asked  or  subjects  assigned  ;  e.g.,  — 


QUESTIONS   FOR  EXAMINATIONS  69 

What  are  the  striking  characteristics  of  Asia? 

Write  a  page  or  more  about  the  plateaus. 

Mention  the  rivers  in  order,  and  compare  any  two  of 
them. 

What  have  you  learned  from  pictures  or  objects  seen 
about  the  country? 

Mention  the  leading  exports  of  Japan  and  India. 

In  Part  III.,  a  memory  map  should  be  required.  This 
request  may  be  thus  worded  :  — 

Draw  from  memory  a  map  of  Asia.  Print  upon  it  the 
capitals,  principal  towns,  four  mountains,  four  rivers,  two 
each  of  the  natural  divisions,  the  principal  productions,  and 
underline  the  exports  and  exporting  towns. 

We  have  generally,  at  the  close  of  the  instruction  upon 
geography,  given  the  graduating  class  a  severe  and  compre- 
hensive test  of  their  knowledge.  Last  year  the  test  assumed 
this  form  :  Each  scholar  was  furnished  with  a  blank  outline 
map  of  the  world,  drawn  on  Mercator's  Projection,  pub- 
lished by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston.  The  following  were 
some  of  the  questions  given  :  — 

2.  Draw  the  prime  meridian  in  its  correct  place  upon 
the  map  ;  the  meridian  20°  W. ;   100°  W. ;   100°  E. 

3.  Mark  degrees  of  parallels  and  meridians. 

4.  Mark  noon  for  prime  meridian,  and  the  correct  time 
at  same  moment  for  the  other  meridians. 

5.  Show  by  black  dots  the  voyage  of  the  "  Vega." 

7.  Show  by  arrows  the  direction  of  principal  winds. 

8.  Print  the  names  of  principal  ocean-currents,  and  show 
direction  by  arrows. 

9.  Draw  principal  mountain  ranges    in   each   continent, 
print  names  of  ranges  and  important  peaks. 


70  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

14.  Show  in  red  ink  a  practical  route  around  the  world. 

15.  Show  other  important  commercial  routes. 

1 6.  Show  by  red  crosses  the  situation  of  volcanic  districts. 
19.  Print  in  blue  ink  principal  animals  in  each   grand 

division. 

The  result  obtained  is  shown  in  one  case  on  the  next  page. 

These  questions  show  the  wide  range  of  instruction 
attempted.  No  single  text-book,  only  the  topical  method, 
enables  teachers  to  ask  questions  of  this  character.  Scholars 
thus  taught  not  only  know  names  and  localities,  but  interest- 
ing facts  connected  therewith.  This  particular  test  condensed 
into  a  single  page  a  vast  amount  of  information,  which  could 
be  rapidly  examined  and  corrected.  Twenty  questions  were 
asked  ;  and  more  than  half  the  class  drew  each  over  fifty 
lines  and  marks  upon  the  blank  map,  and  printed  over  two 
hundred  names,  most  of  which  were  correctly  spelled  and 
located.  See  Figs.  3  and  4. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

An  illustration  can  be  given  from  personal  experience 
for  the  encouragement  of  other  teachers.  We  began 
several  years  ago  to  read  to  our  classes  from  various 
books  of  travel,  such  as  Miss  Bird's  "  Japan,"  Mrs.  Brassey's 
'•  Sunbeam,"  Prime's  "  Around  the  World,"  etc.  The  results 
were  excellent.  What  was  read  one  day  was  recited  the 
next,  or  brought  in  in  the  shape  of  a  composition,  being 
written  out  from  memory. 

\Ve  then  conceived  the  idea  of  having  the  pupils  read  to 
us,  as  being  much  more  for  their  advantage.  Our  efforts 
were  rather  discouraging  till  we  began  to  supply  the  class  with 
the  library-numbers  of  the  books.  These  were  written  upon 


Fig.  3.  —  The  Outline  of  the  Worl 
(%  real  size.) 


£55 


to  be  filled  in  for  Final  Examination. 
ee  pp.  69  and  70.) 


I 


Fig.  4.  — A  Reproduction  by  the  Photographic  .Process,  of 

Mentioned  on  pp.  < 


Corbett's  Map,  after  answering  the  Examination  Questions 
70.     (^  real  size.) 


I 


READING   HOUR  71 

the  blackboard  without  the  titles,  or  furnished  by  underlined 
catalogues,  or  written  catalogues  accessible  to  all.  In  various 
ways  the  pupils  were  encouraged  to  obtain  these  books. 
During  the  recitation  some  reference  was  perhaps  made  to 
some  of  these  books,  —  a  word  dropped  about  an  author's 
experience  in  the  distant  land,  about  the  appearance  of  the 
country,  or  some  fact  stated  about  the  people.  Curiosity 
was  thus  awakened,  and  in  a  day  or  two  several  boys  obtained 
some  of  the  books,  and  proudly  brought  them  to  school. 
Then  the  literary  contagion  spread  with  healthy  rapidity. 

Our  present  plan  is  to  encourage  and  direct  the  reading, 
by  appointing  for  the  last  session  of  the  week  a  "  reading- 
hour/'  at  which  the  pupils  are  expected  to  be  ready  to  read 
from  books  of  travel,  magazines,  etc.,  short  selections  relating 
to  the  geography  of  the  country  then  under  consideration, 
instead  of  reading  from  the  regular  reader.  Our  experience 
shows  that  this  method  teaches  pupils  to  call  words  much 
more  rapidly  than  by  using  the  reader,  that  it  creates  great 
interest,  that  both  pupils  and  teacher  learn  many  new  facts 
about  the  country  and  the  people,  and  that  the  pupils  make 
remarkably  good  selections. 

The  number  of  books  read  under  these  circumstances  will 
vary  somewhat  with  different  classes.  Two  years  ago  a  class 
of  forty  pupils  read  ninety  books  upon  Africa  during  six 
weeks'  time,  and  over  two  hundred  upon  the  other  coun- 
tries during  three  and  a  half  months'  time,  making  about 
three  hundred  books  read  in  five  months. 

The  next  class  were  better  readers.  They  read  upon 
Africa  in  six  weeks  a  hundred  and  fifty-three  books ;  upon 
Asia  in  November,  a  hundred  and  fifty  books  ;  upon  the  other 
countries,  in  the  two  remaining  months  during  which  geog- 


72  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

raphy  was  taught,  a  hundred  and  fifty  books  ;  making  a  total 
of  four  hundred  and  fifty- three  books  read  by  forty  pupils  in 
five  months. 

Some  of  the  topics  presented  at  the  "  reading-hour  "  were 
the  following  :  viz.,  — 

"  Balize,"  from  Stephens's  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Central  America, 
p.  ii. 

"  Ascent  of  Popocatapetl,"  from  Brocklehurst's  Mexico  To-play, 
p.  104. 

"  Among  the  Esquimaux,"  from  Hayes's  The  Arctic  Boat  Journey, 

p.  121. 

"Ascent  of  the  Matterhorn,"  from  Whymper's  Scrambles  amongst 
the  Alps,  p.  150. 

"  Manners  and  Morals  of  Stockholm,"  from  Taylor's  Northern 
Travel,  p.  210. 

"  Schools  of  Germany,*'  from  Brown's  American  Family  in  Ger- 
many, p.  59. 

"  Caste  in  India,"  from  Prime's  Around  the  World,  p.  244. 

"  Dress  and  Dwellings  of  the  Samoyeds,"  from  Nordenskibld's 
Voyage  of  the  Vega,  chap.  ii. 

"  Relief  of  Lucknow,"  from  Butler's  Land  of  the  Veda,  p.  293. 

"  Japanese  Customs  and  Dress,"  from  Miss  Bird's  Japan,  p.  41,  v.  I. 

"  Siberian  Prisons,"  from  Lansdell's  Through  Siberia,  p.  77. 

"  Moorish  House,"  from  De  Amicis'  Morocco,  p.  34. 

"  Cassala    Natives,"  from  James's  Wild  Tribes  of  the  Soudan, 

P-  54- 

"  Dogs  and  Animals,"  from  Schweinfurth's  Heart  of  Africa,  p.  91, 
v.  i. 

"  Suez  Canal,"  from  Manning's  Land  of  the  Pharaohs,  p.  177. 

"  The  Gorilla,"  from  Chaillu's  Equatorial  Africa,  p.  394. 

"Cocoanuts,"  from  Brassey's  Tahiti,  p.  61. 

"  Sugar  Estate,"  from  Ober's  Camps  in  the  Caribbees,  p.  229. 

"  India  Rubber  and  its  Preparation,"  from  Keller's  Amazon, 
p.  92. 

"  Southern  Andes,"  from  Dixie's  Across  Patagonia,  p.  174. 


THEIR   FAVORITE  AUTHORS  73 

It  was  wonderful  how  much  their  love  for  good  reading 
was  developed  in  five  months  by  this  method.  During  the 
rest  of  the  year,  the  class  read  the  best  books  in  history  and 
literature.  The  pupils  who  began  the  year  with  Cameron, 
Baker,  Stanley,  Nordenskiold,  Lansdell,  Taylor,  Ober, 
Marcoy,  Du  Chaillu,  finished  the  year  by  reading  Macaulay, 
Hume,  Knight,  Dickens,  MacKenzie,  Yonge,  Abbot,  Guizot, 
Bancroft,  Cooper,  Irving,  Prescott,  Towle,  Longfellow, 
Whittier,  and  Scott's  poems  and  novels. 


CHAPTER   V 

APPARATUS 


THE  foundation  of  all  learning  consists  in  representing  clearly  to 
the  senses  sensible  objects,  so  that  they  can  be  apprehended  easily. 

Comenius. 
75 


BOOKS    FOR    CONSULTATION 


CROCKER'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 
FRYE'S  GEOGRAPHY  WITH  SAND  MODELLING. 
GEIKIE'S  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 
GROVE'S  GEOGRAPHY  (PRIMER). 
PARKER'S  How  TO  TEACH  GEOGRAPHY. 

76 


CHAPTER  V 
APPARATUS 

ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  ROCK  ISLAND  ROUTE  —  HOW  TO  OBTAIN  ADVERTISEMENTS 
—  TRUNK  LINE  CIRCULARS — BLACKBOARDS,  CRAYONS  —  OUTLINE  MAPS — TRANS- 
FER AND  STENCIL  MAPS  —  REYNOLDS's  CHARTS  —  RAISED  ATLAS  —  CHARTS  —  THE 
RUBBER  PEN  — SCHOOL  SOLAR  CAMERA. 

ONE  day  a  poorly  dressed  boy  handed  his  teacher  a 
unique  advertisement  of  the  Rock  Island  Route,  in 
the  form  of  a  first-class  passenger  ticket  around  the  world, 
supposed  to  be  issued  by  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific  Railroad,  containing  nineteen  coupons,  showing  in 
large  letters  the  important  places  on  the  route,  and  their 
distances  from  one  another.  The  teacher,  holding  this  in 
his  hand,  stepped  to  the  board,  unrolled  it,  and  held  it  up 
before  the  class,  telling  them  what  a  fine  present  Master 
O'Brien  had  just  given  him.  He  then  asked  the  boys  to 
open  their  geographies,  and  take,  in  imagination,  a  trip 
round  the  world  as  advertised  on  this  supposed  ticket. 

New  York  was  the  starting-point.  The  class  named  the 
next  important  place,  Liverpool.  The  teacher  drew  on  the 
large  blackboard  outline  map  of  the  world,  a  wide,  heavy 
red  line  from  New  York  to  Liverpool,  and  put  down  the 
distance  on  the  line,  and  the  average  time  it  would  take  to 
make  the  trip.  These  figures  were  also  placed  on  one  side 
at  the  head  of  columns.  Then  the  next  section  in  the  trip 
was  taken,  laid  out  and  figured,  the  class  becoming  wonder- 

77 


78  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

fully  interested.  In  ten  minutes  the  distance  round  the 
earth,  via  the  most  popular  route,  was  sketched  and  figured 
in  miles  and  days.  Afterward  the  class  drew  the  route  on 
the  commercial  map  in  the  back  part  of  their  geographies. 
That  class  during  the  year  never  forgot  how  the  world  is 
circumnavigated  for  business  or  pleasure. 

This  little  experiment  shows  how  valuable  the  simplest 
object  is  to  illustrate  a  point  in  geography,  or  to  awaken  an 
interest  in  a  class. 

Advertisements  that  can  be  obtained  for  the  asking  often 
contain  plans,  maps,  or  pictures,  of  immense  value  in  the 
schoolroom.  Each  teacher  should  exercise  a  little  energy 
and  ingenuity  in  finding  and  obtaining  such  helps.  The 
pupils  of  the  class  will  become  wide-awake  partners  in 
this  enterprise,  if  the  teacher  explain  the  need  and  advan- 
tage to  them  of  securing  every  possible  helpful  advertise- 
ment. 

The  writer  has  in  his  possession  a  large  number  of  helps 
thus  pleasantly  obtained.  A  few  are  mentioned,  to  encourage 
teachers  to  work  in  a  similar  line.  The  complete  addresses 
are  not  given  here,  because  most  of  these  particular  articles 
have  been  already  exhausted.1 

One  class  within  a  week  brought  to  school  a  fine  picture 
of  the  Old  Mill  at  Newport ;  a  dozen  colored  cards  showing 
the  natural  growth  of  the  different  spices ;  a  perfect  picture 
of  a  western  prairie  home ;  Florida  scenery ;  several  pro- 
grammes of  illustrated  lectures ;  maps  and  itineraries  by 
Thomas  Cook  &  Son,  New  York  ;  by  Raymond,  Boston ; 

1  The  writer  once  put  a  very  gentlemanly  book-agent  to  considerable  expense  and 
trouble  by  mentioning,  in  an  article  for  an  educational  paper,  some  valuable  picture 
the  agent  had  been  giving  away  with  the  list  of  books  published  by  his  firm. 


SUMMER  SAUNTERINGS  79 

the  oldest  house  in  America  (1634)  ;  the  Natural  Bridge; 
sights  in  Burlington,  etc. 

But  more  valuable  than  these,  are  the  circulars  issued 
every  year  by  the  great  trunk  lines  of  railroads  in  this 
country,  such  as  the  Boston  and  Albany,  Hoosac  Tunnel, 
Grand  Trunk,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  Central,  etc.  Several 
railroads  publish  each  summer,  about  the  first  of  June,  a 
special  pamphlet  full  of  graphic  descriptions,  and  excellent 
pictures,  "  for  gratuitous  circulation."  The  following  are 
especially  recommended  as  worth  asking  for  :  — 

"  Summer  Saunterings,"  by  the  Boston  and  Lowell  R.R.  ; 
"  White  and  Franconia  Mountains,"  by  the  Boston,  Con- 
cord, and  Montreal  R.R. ;  "  Tip-End  of  Yankee-Land,"  by 
the  Old  Colony  R.R. ;  "  By-Ways,"  by  the  Central  Vermont 
R.R. ;  "Union  Pacific  Tourist,"  by  the  Union  Pacific  R.R., 
Omaha;  "The  Apostle  Islands,"  by  the  Wisconsin  Cen- 
tral R.R.,  Milwaukee;  "The  Golden  North-West,"  by  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  R.R.,  Chicago  ;  "  The 
Bouquet,"  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  R.R. ; 
"  Shasta,"  by  the  Southern  Pacific ;  also  summer  tours  by 
the  Erie  R.R.,  New  York ;  the  West  Shore,  New  York  Cen- 
tral, Hudson  River  R.R.,  and  all  the  leading  trunk  lines. 

No  more  useful  apparatus  can  be  found  in  the  school- 
room than  the  blackboard.  As  it  should  be  constantly  used 
by  the  teacher  and  pupils,  plenty  of  blackboard  surface 
should  be  supplied,  and  this  should  be  in  all  cases  of  the 
best  quality.  The  best  blackboard  thus  far  examined  is  the 
kind  now  largely  used,  and  called  "The  Crystal  Blackboard," 
manufactured  and  sold  by  J.  L.  Hammett,  24  Cornhill, 
Boston.  This  blackboard  is  made  of  ground  glass,  painted 
on  the  back  so  it  will  never  get  out  of  repair  or  wear  out. 


80  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

It  is  superior  to  slate,  because  it  does  not  change  its  color. 
With  enamel  crayons,  a  person  can  shade  on  this  black- 
board as  readily  as  with  a  good  pen  on  paper.  The  black- 
board can  be  washed  at  any  time  without  injury.  The  best 
white  enamel  crayon  for  softness,  and  freedom  from  grit,  is 
the  Parmentar  enamel  crayon,  made  in  Waltham,  Mass. 
The  best  colored  enamel  crayon  is  the  New  York  Crayon 
Company's.  The  enamel  crayon  should  come  into  imme- 
diate use,  because  its  introduction  will  lead  to  a  much 
greater  use  of  the  chalk,  especially  the  colored  variety. 
The  great  objection  to  the  use  of  colored  crayon  has  been 
its  dirtiness  ;  but  when  a  teacher  can  hold  a  colored  enamel 
crayon  in  the  hand  all  day,  and  not  soil  her  fingers  at  all, 
she  will  be  likely  to  use  it  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 

It  is  very  frequently  convenient  to  have  a  special  black- 
board for  use  in  geography,  on  which  the  simplest  outlines 
of  the  grand  divisions  may  be  drawn  in  permanent  lines, 
representing  the  countries  large  enough  for  writing  within, 
in  their  proper  places,  the  names  of  prominent  towns,  of 
productions,  -  natural  divisions,  facts  about  climate,  etc. 
Professor  Adams  of  Worcester  accomplishes  this  by  having 
the  outline  of  the  map  painted,  in  old-gold  color,  on  the 
regular  blackboard,  or  on  extra  movable  blackboards,  which 
can  be  readily  hung  over  the  other  boards.  The  surface  of 
the  blackboard  possible  in  a  room  is  thus  greatly  enlarged. 
Those  who  cannot  afford  these  will  find  a  very  good  sub- 
stitute in  the  cloth  blackboards,  which  have  the  advantage 
of  being  more  easily  handled.  The  material  of  which  this 
board  is  made  consists  of  strong  cloth,  covered  with  liquid 
slating  such  as  is  usually  placed  on  plaster  blackboards. 
The  cloth  blackboard  is  sold  with  this  slate  preparation  on 


A  CLOTH   BLACKBOARD  8 I 

one  side,  for  sixty  cents  per  square  yard ;  on  both  sides,  for 
a  dollar  per  square  yard.  They  are  sold,  all  mounted,  in 
Boston,  at  the  School  Supply  Company,  15  Bromfield  Street. 
Size  No.  2,  which  answers  well  for  North  and  South  America 
or  Africa,  costs  a  dollar  and  a  half.  The  blackboard,  of 
course,  is  a  blank  when  purchased. 

The  outlines  of  any  country  can  be  easily  made  upon  it 
by  tracing  them  with  stencil  maps,  and  then  painting  them 
over  with  some  bright  color  in  oil.  One  or  two  rivers 
and  a  chain  of  mountains  may  be  added,  and  the  map  is 
finished.  Europe  may  be  drawn  on  one  side,  and  South 
America  on  the  other.  We  have  seen  this  well  done  by 
young  boys.  If  a  youth  about  fourteen  can  make  so  good 
an  outline  map,  it  would  seem  that  any  teacher  could  easily 
make  one  for  use  next  year.  These  maps  wear  well,  although 
in  daily  use.  With  them  the  teacher  can  impart  much 
information,  and^also  give  variety  to  the  recitation.  Pupils 
can  be  sent  to  the  map  to  locate  and  express  in  writing,  or 
by  marks,  various  matters  of  information.  In  some  schools 
these  maps  are  used  more  constantly  and  profitably  than 
any  other  piece  of  geographical  apparatus. 

One  of  the  best  recitations  we  ever  heard  in  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  United  States  was  given  in  Mr.  Lyford's  school, 
Worcester,  Mass. ;  the  pupils  indicating  upon  a  similar  map, 
in  various  ways,  their  answers.  It  was  astonishing  how  much 
they  could  express  upon  the  board  in  less  than  a  minute. 

In  teaching  the  United  States,  great  help  is  obtained  by 
showing  the  class  a  variety  of  maps,  such  as  can  be  pro- 
cured free  of  the  different  railroad  companies.  The  Chicago 
and  Alton  Railroad  have  given  away  thousands  of  their  large 
standard-time  map,  so  helpful  in  teaching  this  subject. 


82  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

No  form  of  apparatus  is  more  useful  than  every  variety 
of  maps.  Guyot's  are  still  the  best  physical  wall-maps,  and 
Hughes'  the  best  political  maps.  As  maps  will  be  treated  at 
length  in  another  chapter,  reference  will  only  be  made  here 
to  two  special  kinds,  which  come  properly  under  apparatus. 

Transfer  and  stencil  maps  are  a  great  convenience  for 
quickly  and  correctly  making  an  outline  of  a  country.  A 
transfer  map  is  made  by  tracing  from  a  wall  map  of  desired 
size,  about  three  feet  in  length  being  a  convenient  size,  a 
map  of  some  country,  as  North  America,  for  instance, 
giving  rivers,  lakes,  mountains,  political  boundaries,  etc. 
Produce  this  upon  a  large  sheet  of  manilla  paper,  reversing 
the  sides  so  the  eastern  boundary  —  Newfoundland,  etc. 
—  will  be  on  the  left,  and  California  on  the  right,  north  being 
still  at  the  top.  Line  in  heavily  with  common  colored 
crayons,  using  the  brightest  color,  —  blue  for  the  coast, 
green  for  the  mountains,  red  for  the  boundaries,  etc.  Then 
moisten  the  blackboard  with  a  wet  cloth,  and  press  the 
crayoned  map  upon  the  moistened  surface.  Upon  removal, 
a  perfectly  formed  map  will  be  seen,  only  needing  to  be 
lined  in  to  make  it  stand  out  more  emphatically.  The 
transfer  map  thus  prepared  can  be  used  over  and  over 
again  by  occasional  renewals  of  the  crayon.  Stencil  maps 
have  their  outlines  perforated  with  small  holes,  through 
which  the  crayqn  dust  readily  passes  to  the  board  when 
the  map  is  held  against  the  blackboard  and  struck  with  the 
dusty  eraser  or  cloth.  The  faint  lines  thus  made  are 
strengthened  by  the  crayon.  Stencil  maps  save  so  much 
time,  they  have  become  very  popular.  Such  a  map  can  be 
easily  made  by  the  teacher,  or  "  stencil  "  maps  all  ready 
for  use  can  be  purchased  of  the  educational  publisher. 


DIFFERENT  APPARATUS  83 

The  Standard  Letter  and  Invoice  File,  sold  at  most 
stationers'  for  fifty  cents,  is  a  great  convenience  for  a  scrap 
or  picture  album  in  geography.  The  various  pockets  are 
arranged  alphabetically,  and  will  hold  a  large  amount  of 
material.  A  moulding-board  of  some  kind  is  one  of  the 
necessities  of  the  schoolroom,  but  it  is  not  at  all  necessary 
that  it  should  be  a  grand  twenty-five-dollar  zinc  affair.  A 
very  good  board  can  be  made  for  a  few  dollars  by  any 
carpenter.  A  convenient  size  is  two  and  one-half  feet  by 
(three  feet :  if  it  has  round  edges,  two  inches  deep,  and  is 
lset  on  folding  supports  so  as  to  be  raised  and  supported 
at  a  convenient  angle,  its  usefulness  is  greatly  increased. 
But  any  teacher  can  easily  obtain  a  plain  pine  board,  such 
as  is  sold  for  kitchen  use,  paint  it  blue,  and  make  it  serve 
all  needed  purposes.  On  such  a  board,  sand,  clay,  and 
putty  work  can  be  made. 

J.  Reynolds  &  Sons,  London,  publish  several  important 
charts,  some  of  which  are  charts  for  physical  geography, 
astronomical  geography,  nature  in  ascending  regions.  These 
three  are  large  enough  to  be  easily  seen  across  the  room  by 
the  whole  class,  and  cost  about  two  dollars  and  a  half  each. 
They  are  imported  by  the  School  Supply  Company,  Boston, 
Mass.  Sonnenschein  and  Allen's  Atlas,  containing  thirty- 
one  raised  maps,  deserves  to  be  mentioned  in  this  place. 
Dissected  maps,  upon  same  scale,  of  the  grand  divisions 
and  United  States,  have  just  been  made  by  Milton  Bradley 
£  Co.  Norris's  Cyclopedic  Map  helps  to  give  variety  to 
recitations. 

Home-made  charts  perhaps  are  capable  of  as  varied  use 
as  any  kind  of  apparatus.  The  best  charts  are  printed 
upon  white  cloth,  but  these  cost  too  much.  Manilla  paper, 


84  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

however,  makes  a  good  substitute  for  cloth,  and  when 
bought  by  the  pound  (ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound)  is 
much  cheaper.  It  is  usually  sold  at  this  price  by  the  roll 
of  about  one  hundred  pounds.  Several  teachers  can  club 
together,  and  buy  a  roll.  The  best  instrument  with  which 
to  w.rite  upon  this  paper  is  the  rubber  pen  recently  manu- 
factured for  marking  and  directing  goods.  This  pen  is 
usually  sold  at  rubber  stores  and  stationers ;  price,  fifteen 
cents.  To  make  it  work  well  without  dipping  too  often, 
the  side  creases  should  be  enlarged  by  cutting  out  with  a 
penknife,  so  they  will  hold  more  ink.  Dip  and  write  as 
with  an  ordinary  pen  :  there  is  no  danger  of  blotting.  A 
vast  amount  of  writing  can  be  done  with  a  single  pen. 


Fig.  5.— Rubber  Pen,  Natural  Size. 

These  charts  are  readily  mounted  by  carrying  the  top  of 
the  paper  over  a  half-inch  stick,  and  fastening  with  large- 
headed  tacks ;  then  carry  bottom  of  paper  twice  round 
one-inch  pine-roller,  and  fasten  with  common  tacks  driven 
about  two  inches  apart.  One  or  two  eyelets  in  the  top 
stick  will  hold  the  chart.  If  a  similar  eyelet  is  fastened 
into  the  picture-moulding  in  front  of  the  class,  and  a  linen 
string  or  cord  run  through  it,  the  teacher  will  have  a  con- 
venient method  of  raising  and  lowering  pictures,  charts, 
or  maps,  whenever  needed  for  instruction.  These  charts 
should  not  be  more  than  ten  or  twelve  feet  long.  The 
wider  kinds  of  paper  are  the  more  convenient.  Most  of 
these  charts  should  be  on  paper  four  and  a  half  feet  wide. 


CHARTS  85 

A  convenient  form  and  size  for  a  chart  is  one  made  and 
mounted  like  a  music  chart,  in  which  the  leaves  are  three 
feet  square. 

Below,  suggestions  are  made  of  good  subjects  for  chart 
work  :  — 

Population  of  China  compared  with  other  countries,  shown 
in  squares  and  color ;  climate  of  North  America  by  belts ; 
the  religions  of  Africa ;  the  discoveries  of  Africa  ;  review 
charts  ;  spelling-charts  ;  a  temperance  chart,  showing  to  the 
eye  by  rectangles  the  amount  in  value  of  liquor,  bread, 
cloth,  etc.,  consumed  in  United  States  in  a  year ;  com- 
parative height  of  mountains  ;  length  of  rivers  ;  Greeley's 
Arctic  route  ;  the  world's  industries,  shown  by  blocks  ;  all 
the  grand  divisions  on  the  same  scale. 

Valuable  charts  can  be  easily  made  by  cutting  out  from 
some  family  atlas  the  richly  colored  diagrams  to  illustrate 
population,  area,  exports,  imports,  etc.,  and  mounting  the 
same  on  stiff  paper,  with  margins  wide  enough  for  writing 
figures  or  a  few  words  sufficiently  large  to  be  read  across 
the  schoolroom. 

More  useful  than  these  are  the  original  charts  which 
evolve  themselves  from  the  common  experiences  of  the 
schoolroom.  For  instance,  you  are  teaching  about  the 
discoverers  of  Africa.  You  sketch  on  the  board  the  routes 
of  each  discoverer,  and  write  near  them  the  proper  date 
and  name.  Now,  if  these  be  drawn  in  colored  inks  on  a 
large  piece  of  manilla  paper,  the  chart  thus  made  can  be 
used  year  after  year,  and  much  time  saved  for  other  work. 

Our  first  large  charts  were  stencilled  letter  by  letter  on 
white  cloth.  Such  charts  can  be  read  in  the  largest  hall ; 
but  they  are  not  needed  in  the  schoolroom,  and  they  cost 


86  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

too  much  time  and  money.  With  the  aid  of  the  rubber 
pen,  charts  can  be  easily  written  or  printed  so  as  to  be 
read  by  every  pupil  in  the  ordinary  schoolroom. 

But  the  best  wine  is  left  for  the  last.  It  remains  to 
speak  now  of  a  piece  of  apparatus  which  puts  all  those 
given  above  completely  in  the  shade.  It  is  well  known,  of 
course,  that  the  most  perfect  pictures  for  the  schoolroom 
are  photographic  slides,  thrown  upon  the  screen  by  an 
oxyhydrogen  lantern  or  solar  camera.  These  pictures  can 
be  enlarged  in  the  schoolroom  to  ten  feet  square.  A  pic- 
ture of  that  size  impresses  itself  upon  the  young  mind.  As 
these  pictures  can  be  seen  by  all  the  scholars  at  the  same 
time,  explanations  and  comments  are  profitably  given  by 
the  teacher.  The  first  cost  of  the  stereopticon  or  lantern 
(from  one  hundred  dollars  to  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
dollars)  is  so  great,  and  there  is  so  much  trouble  and 
expense  in  supplying  gases,  that  it  is  practically  ruled  out 
of  the  public-schoolroom.  A  worthy  substitute  is  now 
supplied  by  the  "  School  Solar  Camera,"  invented  and  man- 
ufactured by  Professor  Charles  F.  Adams,  Normal  School, 
Worcester,  Mass.  This  instrument  is  the  result  of  nine 
years  of  thought  and  practice  in  daily  teaching.  It  is  so 
simple  it  can  be  used  in  perfect  safety  by  a  novice  or  young 
child,  and  so  strong  it  will  neither  break  nor  wear  out.  It 
throws  upon  the  screen  a  flood  of  light  white  as  noonday. 
We  have  carefully  examined  several  cameras,  heliostats, 
porte-lumieres,  etc.,  but  have  found  nothing  equal  to  Pro- 
fessor Adams's  instrument. 

We  speak  from  personal  acquaintance,  as  we  carried  the 
first  instrument  to  Boston,  shortly  after  its  invention,  and 
have  yearly  shown  our  classes  nearly  four  hundred  different 


SCHOOL   SOLAR   CAMERA  87 

pictures  with  this  instrument.  The  results  have  exceeded 
our  fondest  hopes.  The  convenience  and  ease  with  which 
the  camera  can  be  placed  in  the  window,  the  screen 
adjusted,  the  room  darkened,  and  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions made  for  a  picture-lesson,  are  greatly  in  its  favor. 
Excellent  pictures  can  be  shown,  even  when  the  day  is  hazy. 
Under  ordinary  sunlight  the  pictures  are  better  than  by 
the  artificial  light.  At  the  same  time  the  room  is  light 
enough  for  the  pupils  to  take  notes.  This  instrument  can 
be  used  in  teaching  geography,  history,  physiology,  natural 
sciences,  etc.  Its  availability  is  unlimited.  Having  once 
enjoyed  its  fascinating  help,  we  should  not  know  how  to 
teach  in  the  future  without  its  assistance.  As  it  costs  only 
twenty-five  dollars,  the  teachers  of  any  school-building  or 
district,  by  combining,  can  readily  purchase  it.  Mr.  Adams 
has  also  selected  from  ten  thousand  negatives  some  twelve 
hundred  slides  suitable  for  grammar  and  high  school  instruc- 
tion (price,  forty-five  cents  each).  These  are  kept  con- 
stantly in  stock,  and  are  sold  with  or  without  the  camera. 

NOTE.  —  The  simple  outline  of  a  country  cut  out  of  tough,  flexible 
pasteboard,  about  six  inches  by  four,  is  a  cheap  and  useful  help  for 
beginners  in  map-drawing.  The  pasteboard  outline  is  placed  on  the 
slate  or  paper,  and  the  children  easily  mark  around  it  the  required 
contour. 


CHAPTER   VI 

MAP  LANGUAGE 


WITHOUT  maps,  true  geographical  teaching  is  impossible.  —  Guyot. 


BOOKS  FOR   CONSULTATION 


CROCKER'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

GEIKIE'S  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

GOODISON'S   ARTICLES   IN   POPULAR   EDUCATOR  FOR   1887 

AND  1888. 
K.  JOHNSTON'S  HISTORICAL,  PHYSICAL,  AND  DESCRIPTIVE 

GEOGRAPHY. 

90 


CHAPTER   VI 
MAP  LANGUAGE 


RELATIVE   POSITION  —  ABSOLUTE  TERMS  —  PLAN   AND   MAP  —  A    MAP   VS.    A   PICTURE  — 
WHAT  MAPS  SHOULD  SHOW—  MAP-READING  — THE  MAP  OF  AFRICA  — ILLUSTRATIVE 


IF  the  pupils  do  not  fully  understand  the  symbols  used  on 
an  ordinary  map,  they  must  be  taught  this  new  language. 
In  a  class  of  beginners,  this  is  a  somewhat  difficult  task, 
and  requires  weeks  for  its  accomplishment. 

FOB  BEGINNERS 
1.    Teach  first  Relative  Position. 

Meaning  of  the  prepositions,  ///,  above,  below,  etc.  Illus- 
trate with  book  and  desk. 

Right  and  left  hand,  right-hand  corner,  etc. 

2.    Absolute  Terms,  North,  South,  East,  etc. 

Show  compass. 

Direction  of  other  rooms,  both  relative  and  absolute. 
Other  schools  and  houses. 

3.    Draw  Plan  and  Map. 

Teacher  places  on  each  desk  different  objects,  such  as  a 
book,  slip  of  paper,  round  pasteboard  disk,  etc.,  and  has 
the  class  draw  on  paper  a  representation  of  the  desk  thus 
arranged. 

Then  a  plan  of  the  room  can  be  made,  drawn  to  scale, 

9' 


92  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

as  one  foot  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  ;  and  this  may  be 
followed  by  one  of  the  house,  and  finally  the  yard  may  be 
included.  In  doing  this,  the  teacher  must  exercise  good 
judgment,  and  not  require  too  difficult  work  for  the  age  of 
the  children. 

Then  the  vicinity  can  be  mapped  out  in  a  simple  way. 

When  this  is  finished,  a  map  of  the  city,  or  a  more 
elaborate  one  by  the  teacher,  will  be  examined  by  the  class 
with  much  interest. 

At  this  stage,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  draw  a  simple 
plan  of  the  surroundings  of  the  school,  on  a  cloth  black- 
board, as  it  lies  on  the  table,  and  then  hang  it  up  so  all  can 
see  it  at  once.  This  will  suggest  why  maps  are  always  hung 
against  the  wall. 

The  difference  between  plans  and  maps  may  now  be 
illustrated  by  making  a  simple  plan  and  a  simple  map  of 
the  same  well-known  part  of  the  town.  Distances  can  be 
quite  correctly  measured  on  maps  if  drawn  to  a  scale. 

The  difference  between  a  map  and  a  picture  is  shown  by 
illustrations  of  the  same  section  of  the  country  represented 
in  the  two  ways.  Most  of  the  English  geographical  readers 
contain  such  illustrations  in  the  first  numbers.  It  is  well  to 
make  a  profile  of  the  same  country. 

A  map  is  not  a  picture,  but  it  should  suggest  a  picture. 

The  picture  is  more  beautiful  to  the  traveller,  but  the  map 
more  useful.  Why? 

WHAT  DO  MAPS  SHOW? 

To  beginners,  the  ordinary  map  should  show  the  shape  of 
the  country ;  the  coast-line,  the  locality  of  capes,  islands, 
mountains,  and  highlands ;  in  what  direction  they  extend  ; 


MAP  READING.  93 

the  mountain  peaks ;  where  rivers  will  be  found ;  localities 
of  lakes,  gulfs,  bays,  cities,  towns,  and  harbors.  The  raised 
map  will  show  clearly  the  highlands  and  lowlands,  the 
valleys,  the  peaks  and  volcanoes,  the  plains,  and  many 
physical  features. 

If  the  older  pupil  is  furnished  with  raised  maps,  or  even 
physical  maps  as  good  as  Guyot's,  he  can  learn  to  see 
represented,  besides  locality,  on  such  maps,  the  general 
configuration,  and  find  the  form  most  easily  suggested,  the 
position  and  then  the  proportion  of  highlands  and  lowlands, 
the  plateau  regions,  the  prevailing  directions  of  the  long 
ranges,  the  slope  of  the  land,  the  water-shed,  the  groups  of 
rivers  or  river-systems,  where  probably  navigable,  deltas, 
and  other  kinds  of  mouths,  comparisons  of  rivers  widely 
separated  ;  the  pupil  can  also  find  the  latitude  and  zones ; 
from  the  latter,  the  position  of  the  elevations,  etc.,  he  can 
determine  the  climate,  and  then  the  vegetation  and  animals. 
All  this  will  help  him  to  decide  the  occupations  of  the 
people,  and  industries  of  the  different  parts  of  the  country. 

If  the  teacher  preoare  a  set  of  maps  of  all  the  grand 
divisions,  drawn  on  the  same  scale,  made  either  upon  one 
large  chart,  or  cut  out  separately  in  pasteboard,  he  can 
readily  show  by  such  maps  the  comparative  size  of  the 
different  countries.  See  Fig.  57,  Chap.  XIII. 

MAP-READING. 

Very  few  teachers  in  this  country  base  their  instruction 
upon  an  intelligent  use  of  the  map.  The  pupils  should  be 
taught  to  read  the  map  as  one  does  a  newspaper.  A  large 
part  of  the  facts  given  in  most  so-called  descriptive  parts  of 
geographical  text-books  are  clearly  stated  upon  the  map, 


94  METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

and  do  not  need  further  expression.  The  pupil  can  be 
easily  led  to  discover  the  important  physical  features  of  each 
country  for  himself.  This  will  compel  him  to  think  while 
studying  the  map,  and  lead  to  self-activity  and  independ- 
ence of  research.  At  first  the  teacher  must  assist  the 
pupil  both  to  see  and  to  express  these  geographical  facts. 
Suppose  it  is  a  class  of  the  fifth  year  study,  and  map-read- 
ing has  never  been  taken  up  as  a  special  study ;  then  the 
teacher  might  lead  them  to  see  and  talk  in  some  such  way 
as  the  following  :  — 

Hang  up  before  the  class  Guyot's  large  physical  map, 
Hughes's  political  map,  and  a  map  of  the  world.  Let  the 
pupils  open  their  geographies  to  such  maps  as  are  found 
therein  on  the  country.  Suppose  the  grand  division  is 

AFRICA 

Teacher.  Look  at  the  map  of  the  world,  class,  and  tell  me 
where  Africa  is  situated. 

Pupil.  Africa  is  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, directly  south  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  between 
the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans. 

T.     What  important  lines  do  you  notice  crossing  it  ? 

P.     The  equator  and  tropics. 

T.     What  facts  are  suggested  by  these  lines  ? 

P.  They  include  a  large  part  of  the  land  in  the  country 
within  the  tropics,  —  more  than  is  found  in  any  other  country. 
Hence  Africa  must  be  very  hot  and  moist. 

T.     Moist? 

P.  Ye$,  it  ought  to  be  very  moist :  but  I  see  on  the  political 
map  that  the  northern  part  contains  a  great  desert ;  this  must 
be  owing  to  local  causes. 

T.  You  are  right.  We  will  learn  about  this  at  another 
time.  Draw  three  lines,  so  as  to  include  the  contour,  and  tell 
me  its  shape. 


WHAT  THE  MAP  OF   AFRICA  TELLS.  95 

P.     It  is  triangular,  like  North  and  South  America. 

T.  Look  on  the  chart  of  comparative  sizes,  and  tell  me 
how  it  compares  with  other  countries  in  reference  to  size. 

P.  It  is  larger  than  North  America,  and  two-thirds  the  size 
of  Asia. 

T.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  colors  on  this  physical 
map? 

P.  The  green  indicates  lowlands,  less  than  one  thousand 
feet  high ;  the  buff,  plateau  regions ;  the  white,  very  high 
mountains,  usually  covered  with  snow. 

T.     When  you  examine  a  map  like  this,  what  do  you  learn  ? 

P.  As  the  green  is  only  on  the  edge,  I  learn  that  the  low- 
lands in  Africa  are  mainly  around  the  edge,  near  the  coast, 
while  the  interior  is  a  vast  plateau. 

T.     What  exceptions  to  this  general  rule  ? 

P.  There  is  some  low  land  around  Lake  Tchad  and  the 
banks  of  the  Nile. 

T.     Is  the  white  color  used? 

P.  Yes,  in  Abyssinia  and  south  of  that  country.  This 
must  be  the  highest  land  in  the  country. 

T.  Look  at  the  physical  map  of  Europe,  and  note  any  dif- 
ference from  Africa  in  the  situation  of  the  highlands  and 
lowlands. 

P.  In  Europe,  the  highlands  are  at  one  side,  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  country,  and  the  lowlands  are  in  the 
north-eastern  part.  The  latter  cover  more  than  half  of  the 
country. 

T.  On  the  outline  map  draw  a  straight  line  from  the  Bight 
of  Biafra  to  the  middle  of  the  Red  Sea.  Into  what  does  this 
line  divide  Africa? 

P.     Into  two  parts  of  about  equal  size. 

T.     Are  the  two  parts  alike  ? 

P.  No :  the  northern  part  is  rectangular  in  shape,  and  the 
southern  part  is  triangular. 


96  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

7".  What  other  differences  appear  upon  a  close  examination 
of  the  map  ? 

P.  In  the  northern  part  I  see  that  the  chains  run  parallel 
with  the  parallels,  or  nearly  east  and  west,  as  in  Europe  and 
Asia;  in  the  southern,  they  run  north  and  south.  As  there  is 
more  white  and  less  green  in  the  southern  part,  I  judge  the 
land  is  higher  in  the  southern  part,  and  hence  that  the  plateau 
slopes  towards  the  north. 

T.  You  are,  in  the  main,  right.  The  average  height  of  the 
plateau  in  the  northern  part  is  fifteen  hundred  feet,  and  in 
the  southern  part  three  thousand  feet.  Where  are  the  highest 
peaks  ? 

P.     Just  south  of  the  equator,  in  the  main  axis. 

T.  What  do  you  notice  on  the  map  about  the  ranges  of 
mountains  in  the  south  ? 

P.  They  come  together  in  Cape  Colony,  hence  that  country 
must  be  very  mountainous. 

T.     Notice  the  low  land  in  that  vicinity. 

P.  It  is  not  so  wide  as  in  other  parts  of  the  coast;  for  a 
considerable  distance  it  disappears  altogether,  and  there  the 
mountains  must  come  down  to  the  water's  edge,  as  in  the  south- 
western part  of  South  America. 

T.     What  else  can  you  conclude  ? 

P.     That  the  slope  is  very  abrupt. 

T.     Do  the  mountains  of  Africa  separate  any  countries  ? 

P.  Yes :  the  Kong  and  Crystal  Mountains  separate  Guinea 
from  Soudan  and  Central  Africa. 

T.  But  far  more  interesting  than  this  is  the  separation  by 
the  Atlas  Mountains  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Barbary  States 
from  the  southern  or  desert  part.  North  of  the  mountains  are 
found  moisture,  temperate  breezes,  vegetation  in  abundance, 
a  desirable  and  healthy  climate ;  south  of  the  mountains,  just 
the  opposite.  Where  is  the  highest  range  of  mountains  ? 

P.     On  the  east,  near  the  Indian  Ocean. 


MAP  LANGUAGE.  97 

T.  Where  do  you  find  the  highest  range  of  mountains  in 
Asia? 

P.     On  the  south  side,  near  the  Indian  Ocean. 

T.    Where  in  North  and  South  America? 

P.     On  the  west,  nearest  the  Pacific. 

T.  The  largest  mountains,  remember,  are  nearest  the 
larger  ocean;  the  largest  slopes,  nearest  the  smaller  ocean. 
In  what  direction  does  water  always  flow? 

P.  Down  hill.  The  long  rivers  will  flow  down  the  long 
slopes. 

T.     Into  what  oceans,  then,  must  the  large  rivers  flow  ? 

P.  Into  the  Atlantic,  because  most  of  the  land  slopes 
toward  the  Atlantic,  or  its  counterpart  the  Arctic ;  then,  again, 
these  rivers  rise  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  countries,  between 
which  ocean  and  high  mountain  barrier  there  is  always  abun- 
dance of  rain. 

T.  If  a  system  of  rivers  consists  of  several  flowing  into  the 
same  body  of  water,  find  some  systems  in  Africa. 

P.  I  find  on  the  map  the  Atlantic  system,  Mediterranean, 
and  Indian  systems. 

T.     What  plainly  indicates  the  slopes  on  the  political  map  ? 

P.     The  general  direction  of  the  rivers. 

T.  Then  trace  with  the  pointer  on  this  political  map  the 
continental  water-shed. 

P.  Beginning  at  Cape  Blanco,  the  continental  water-shed 
runs  toward  Lake  Tchad,  then  northeasterly  to  Lake  Tangan- 
yika; passing  round  the  eastern  side  of  Lake  Bemba,  it  moves 
westward  toward  the  Crystal  Mountains,  and  then  turns  in  a 
south-eastern  direction  to  the  Kalahari  Desert. 

71  In  the  southern  part  of  Africa,  is  the  distance  from  the 
water-shed  to  the  coast  very  long? 

P.     No. 

T.     Then  how  can  there  be  any  long  rivers  ? 

P.  Only  by  great  curves,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Congo  and 
Niger. 


98  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

T.  In  what  part  of  Africa  is  there  a  long  distance  from  the 
water-line  to  the  coast  ? 

P.  From  where  it  crosses  the  equator  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez. 

71    What  do  we  find  here  ? 

P.  The  longest  river  in  Africa,  flowing  almost  directly 
north,  called  the  Nile. 

T.     What  is  noticeable  about  the  northern  part  of  Africa  ? 

P.  The  general  absence  of  rivers ;  hence,  deserts.  The 
Nile  cuts  the  great  desert  into  two  parts,  but  it  has  no 
branches. 

T.     Why  not? 

P.     Because  a  desert  is  on  each  side. 

T.     What  river  of  Africa  is  most  readily  navigated,  and  why? 

P.  The  Nile,  because  it  flows  over  a  gentle  slope  which  is 
not  crossed  by  mountains. 

71  What  is  true,  as  seen  on  the  map,  about  the  other 
rivers  ? 

P.  They  descend  from  elevated  plateaus,  and  make  their 
way  through  ranges  of  mountains  toward  the  sea.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  they  are  not  navigable,  like  the  Nile,  from  the  ocean, 
for  there  must  be  cascades  not  far  from  their  mouths. 

T.  Such  is  the  fact.  The  Congo,  for  instance,  is  navigable 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  for  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  to 
Vivi.  For  the  next  fifty  miles  it  is  not  navigable,  owing  to  cas- 
cades. Between  the  parallel  ranges  of  the  Crystal  Mountains 
it  is  navigable  for  eighty-eight  miles,  and  then  cascades  inter- 
rupt navigation  for  eighty-five  miles.  In  order  to  overcome 
these  difficulties  to  commerce,  a  railroad  is  needed,  two  hundred 
miles  long,  through  Guinea.  How  have  these  facts  affected 
the  history  of  the  country? 

P.  I  suppose  these  mountains  and  non-commercial  rivers 
have  kept  Africa  closed  to  civilization,  except  about  the  Nile. 


CHAPTER   VII 

MAPS 


IN  learning  outlines,  use  drawing;    in  studying  relief,  or  surface 
slope,  use  modelling.  —  Alex.  E.  Frye. 

99 


BOOKS  AND   MAPS  FOR  REFERENCE 


APGAR'S  MAP  DRAWING. 

APPALACHIA,  June,  1882. 

ADMIRALTY  AND  PILOT  CHARTS. 

BANGS'S  OUTLINES  OF  MAP  DRAWING. 

BUREAU  OF  ENGINEERS,  No.  12,  1873,  DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR. 

FREEMAN'S  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE, 

FRYE'S  GEOGRAPHY,  WITH  SAND  MODELLING. 

GUIDE  BOOKS,  especially  BAEDEKER'S. 

HAND- ATLAS  OF  SPRUNER-MENCKE. 

HUXLEY'S  PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

JOHNSTON'S  MAPS  AND  ATLASES,  LONDON  ;  especially  such  as 

those  on  PHYSIOGRAPHY. 
LETT'S  POPULAR  ATLASES,  LONDON. 
PARKER'S  How  TO  TEACH  GEOGRAPHY. 
POWELL'S  MAPS  OF  THE  U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 
REPORTS  OF  CHIEF  OF  ENGINEERS  ON  RIVER  AND  HARBOR 

IMPROVEMENTS. 

ROYAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY'S  MAPS  IN  "  PROCEEDINGS." 
RECLUS'S  THE  EARTH. 
STANFORD'S  MAPS,  LONDON. 

SWINSTEAD'S  How  TO  DRAW  A  MAP  FROM  MEMORY. 
U.  S.  COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEYS. 
WHEELER'S  SURVEYS  WEST  OF  THE  tooth  MERIDIAN. 
WILME'S  PLAIN  AND  ORNAMENTAL  MAPPING. 
WENZ'S  ATLAS  ZUR  LANDKARTEN-ENTWURFS  LEHRE. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
MAPS 

ORJECT  OF  A  MAP  —  USE  OF  THE  GLOBE  —  RAISED  MAPS  —  PUTTY  JVIAPS  —  PHYSICAL 
MAPS  —  HOW  BEST  REPRESENTED  —  WALL  MAPS —  MAP-DRAWING  —  TRIANGULA- 
T10N  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  —  PROGRESSIVE  MAPS  — OUTLINE  MAPS  —  ADVANTAGES 
IN  USING  THEM  —  LARGE  MAPS 

Object  of  Maps. 

A  MAP  is  a  representation  on  a  flat  surface  of  a  part 
of  the  curved  surface  of  the  earth.  The  map  of  the 
world  is  usually  drawn  on  Mercator's  projection,  and  other 
maps  on  Bonne's,  or  the  conic  projection. 

(Teachers  should  explain  how  the  former  distorts  the 
northern  countries.  See  Grove's  Geography,  p.  25,  or 
Huxley's  Physiography,  p.  335.) 

The  map  shows  locality ;  i.e.,  the  direction  and  the  dis- 
tance. The  scale  on  a  map  shows  the  ratio  of  the  distance 
on  the  map  to  the  distance  on  the  earth.  Maps  should  be 
frequently  spread  on  the  floor  or  on  the  top  of  a  table,  with 
the  top  of  the  map  towards  the  north,  because  children  get 
wrong  ideas  of  up,  down,  etc.,  from  the  hanging  wall-map. 

The  use  in  the  class-room  of  a  map  made  by  a  skilful 
cartographer  is  one  thing ;  the  making  by  a  pupil  of  a  poor 
or  even  good  imitation  of  the  above  map  is  quite  a  different 
thing.  The  printed  map  is  properly  used  to  '  help  locate 
places,  and  to  tell  direction  and  distance.  The  map  made 
by  the  pupil  is  to  help  him  fix  in  mind  various  facts ;  in 
other  words,  simply  to  aid  his  memory. 


IO2  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

As  the  maps  in  ordinary  geographies  are  not  at  all  accu- 
rate, as  they  are  good  for  nothing  to  a  sea-captain  or  in 
accurate  surveys,  and  as  no  two  of  them  exactly  agree,  it 
is  foolish  to  require,  as  in  some  schools,  that  the  pupils 
attempt  to  draw  the  coast-line  exactly  as  it  is  in  the  geog- 
raphy. We  know  a  certain  school  in  which  the  children 
have  been  obliged  to  commit  to  memory  all  the  little  details 
of  the  coast-line,  and  reproduce  them.  It  was  heart-rending 
10  look  at  the  perfection  of  map-work  in  this  grammar 
school,  and  to  think  what  it  must  have  cost ;  and  then  to 
think,  after  all,  it  was  not  correct,  for  the  geography  maps 
in  text- books  are  on  too  small  a  scale  to  be  accurate. 
The  maps  of  the  Coast  Survey  are  generally  on  a  scale  of 
one  inch  to  a  mile ;  the  map  of  North  America  in  most 
text-books  is  one  inch  to  five  hundred  and  twenty  miles. 

Maps  should  not  be  considered  works  of  art,  or  their 
production'  lessons  in  drawing.  They  should  not  be  sur- 
rounded by  numerous  water-lines  and  beautiful  borders ; 
but  they  should  be  neat,  in  good  proportion,  and  crowded 
with  facts. 

Maps  ought  not  to  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  the  use 
of  the  globe. 

As  a  very  good  and  serviceable  globe  can  now  be  bought 
for  twenty-five  cents,  teachers  and  school  authorities  are 
inexcusable  if  they  do  not  possess  a  supply.1 

Raised  Maps. 

These  maps  are  sometimes  called  relief  maps,  although 
the  latter  term  should  be  employed  for  maps  which  show 
by  shaded  lines  the  elevations.  Raised  maps  show  the 

1  Some  teachers  encourage  their  pupils  to  purchase  these  cheap  globes.  We  have 
known  three-fourths  of  a  class  to  possess  them. 


APPARATUS   FOR  SAND-MAPS.  103 

elevations  both  by  color  and  by  raising  up  the  part  repre- 
senting the  highland  and  plateau  regions. 

The  best  maps1  of  this  kind  manufactured  for  sale  are 
found  in  the  Royal  Relief  Atlas,  published  by  Messrs.  Son- 
nenschein  &  Allen,  London  ;  price,  ten  dollars.  There  are 
thirty-one  raised  maps  in  this  book,  and  children  never  tire 
looking  at  them.  With  this  atlas  as  a  guide,  raised  maps 
can  be  easily  made  on  the  moulding-board,  either  by  using 
moulders'  sand  or  clay,  or  by  the  use  of  dry  scouring  beach- 


Fig.  6.— Dishes  and  Paint  Brushes 
Used  in  making  Sand  Maps. 

sand.  In  using  either,  it  is  customary  to  make  the  outline 
first  on  the  board  in  crayon.  But  it  is  better  to  make  the 
outline  with  finger  or  stick  after  the  sand  has  been  spread 
over  the  board. 

The  dry  sand  is  preferred  by  some  to  moulders'  sand, 
because  it  is  so  clean,  needs  no  water,  and  can  be  so  readily 
manipulated.  It  cannot  be  elevated  at  an  angle,  —  to  some 
a  serious  objection,  to  others  an  advantage. 

In  working  dry  sand,  it  is  never  touched  with  the  hands 
directly,  but  sifted  through  a  small  kitchen  sieve,  poured 

1  The  Bay  State  Publishing  Company,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  sell  a  set  of  excellent 
raised  maps,  six  for  $6.00. 


104 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 


through   a   tunnel   with   a   small   nozzle,  or   brushed   with 
painters'  paint-brushes  (see  Fig.  6)  as  follows  :  — 

A  thin  layer  of  sand  is  sifted  over  the  space  to  be  used, 


Fig.  7.  —  Sand  Map.     Outline  indicated,     (i) 

the  outline  marked  with  a  sharp  stick,  and  the  coast-line 
indicated  by  brushing  away  the  sand  with  the  smallest  brush 
where  it  is  necessary  (see  Figs.  7,  8)  ;  then  a  greater  thick- 


APPEARANCE  OF  THE  SAND-MAP 


I05 


ness  is  sifted  on  the  part  where  the  plateaus  and  highland 
districts  are  situated  (see  Fig.  8). 

The  principal  mountain  chains  are  now  thrown  up  by 
pouring  the  sand  on  through  the  tunnel ;  then  the  rivers  are 
indicated  by  the  use  of  a  common  awl  or  sharp  stick,  and 


Fig.  8.  —  The  Sand  nearly  Brushed  Away 

around  the  Coast  and  Highlands  indicated.     (2) 

minor  elevations  between  different  rivers  brought  out  by 
pouring  or  sifting  the  sand  (see  Fig.  9).  After  one  or 
two  maps  have  been  made,  the  pupil  ten  or  twelve  years 
old  will  quickly  make  a  fine  sand  map. 

But  the  teacher  needs  a  large-sized  raised  map,  such  as 


io6 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


can  be  seen  across  the  ordinary  schoolroom.  Mr.  Dean, 
principal  of  a  grammar  school  in  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  has  for 
several  years  taught  his  classes  to  make  such  maps  out  of  a 
composition  which  readily  hardens.  The  pupils  in  his  gradu- 
ating class  make  maps  of  the  different  countries,  about  two 


Fig.  9.— The  Rivers  and  Great  Lakes 
marked  out  with  Awl,  and  Elevations  more  accurately  defined.     (3) 

feet  by  three  feet.  The  class  as  a  whole  makes  one  large 
map  each  year,  some  eight  feet  by  ten,  which  is  given  to 
the  school. 

Raised  maps  have  been  made  in  this  country  of  plaster- 
Paris,  and  in  Germany  of  rubber. 


PUTTY  MAPS  1O7 

After  some  experiment  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  is  nothing  superior  to  common  putty  for  these 
large  raised  maps ;  for  the  substance  is  easily  obtained,  costs 
about  five  cents  per  pound,  and  only  two  pounds  are  needed 
for  a  very  large  map,  and,  unlike  the  composition,  it  does  not 
harden  for  several  days,  so  that  changes  and  corrections  can 
easily  be  made,  —  a  matter  of  considerable  importance,  — 
and  the  map  can  be  built  up  step  by  step. 

Directions  for  Making  a  Large  Putty  Map. 

1.  Make,  or  have  made,  of  half-inch  board,  a  wooden 
moulding-board,  two  feet  by  three  feet.     Paint  it  on  both 
sides  a  light  blue,  two  coats. 

2.  When  dry,  mark  out  with  colored  crayon  or  pencil  the 
coast-line  of  the  continent  to  be  made. 

3.  Then  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  grand  division  a 
thin  layer  of  putty,  using  the  hands,  putty-knife,  and  a  small 
roller.     Cut  out  the  coast-line  distinctly. 

4.  The  next  day,  additional  putty  can  be  added  to  indi- 
cate the  elevations,  table-lands,  etc.     The  long  strips  of  putty 
are  put  on  to  mark  out  the  different  prominent  chains  of 
mountains,  and  a  cone  of  putty  half  an  inch  high  placed  in 
its  proper  position  to  illustrate  the  highest  mountain.     The 
mountains  can  be  made  rough  with  a  sharp  pin. 

5.  Now  mark  the  courses  of  the  rivers   from    mountain 
source  to  mouth  with  an  awl,  and  fill  the  little  channel  with 
tinsel-thread  such  as  ladies  use  for  ornamental  work.     The 
lakes  and  inland  seas  can  be  covered  with  tin-foil.     When 
the  putty  finally  hardens,  these  will  be  held  in  place.     Dif- 
ferent colored  putties  may  be  used  to  represent  elevations, 
as  on  Guyot's  physical  maps.     Red  putty  is  considered  a 
good  color  when  only  one  color  is  used. 


IO8  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

If  the  putty  is  in  proper  condition  for  setting  a  pane  of 
glass,  it  can  be  easily  manipulated  for  the  raised  map  :  it 
does  not  crumble  nor  crack,  and  does  not  need  to  be 
painted.  We  have  a  full  set  of  these  maps  made  by  a  pupil 
fourteen  years  of  age.  They  have  proved  to  be  most  valu- 
able for  teaching  elevation  and  drainage.  Each  one  cost 
about  $1.25. 

The  pupils  may  be  encouraged  to  make  small  putty  maps 
after  the  sand  map  has  been  introduced.  They  will  enjoy 
the  experiment,  and  some  with  a  little  help  will  succeed 
remarkably  well. 

Raised  globes  are  used  to  considerable  extent  in  Germany, 
but  they  are  at  present  too  costly  to  be  used  in  this  country. 
Such  raised  globes  could  be  easily  and  cheaply  made  by 
putting  putty  on  a  paper  globe. 

Physical  Maps. 

In  some  books,  "relief"  maps  are  produced  by  shading, 
in  the  place  of  color.  The  best  relief  maps,  or  "  relief 
views,"  in  modern  geographies  are  those  in  Swinton's  Gram- 
mar School  Geography.  These  plates  have  been  photo- 
graphed, and  made  into  very  effective  slides  for  the  solar 
camera,  by  Professor  C.  F.  Adams  of  the  Worcester  Normal 
School,  Mass. 

Physical  maps  can  be  represented  in  three  ways  :  by  color, 
by  shading,  by  lines.  The  first  has  been  largely  employed 
in  the  ordinary  geography.  The  best  maps  of  this  kind  are 
those  made  by  Professor  Guyot,  and  now  published  by 
Ivison,  Blakeman,  &  Co.  Several  geographies  contain  simi- 
lar physical  maps.  No  geography  ought  to  be  used  as  a 
text-book  which  does  not  give  the  child  some  representation 


HACHURES  AND  CONTOURS 


I09 


of  highlands  and  lowlands.  The  simplest  method  of  all 
upon  a  flat  surface  is  by  color.  Pupils  from  ten  to  twelve 
can  easily  draw  physical  maps,  and  properly  color  them. 
Use  for  colored  crayons  those  called  "  Patent  Greta  Poly- 
color,"  and  sold  for  twenty  cents  a  box,  or  those  put  up  by 
the  Eagle  Pencil  Company.  After  the  color  has  been  laid, 
smooth  over  with  a  quill  or  toothpick. 

When  the  system  of  shading  is  made  in  a  more  careful 
manner,  so  as  to  show  the  general  features  of  the  ground  on 
an  extremely  small  scale,  hachures  are  employed.     If  the 
ground   is   steep,   the   lines   or  hachures   are   drawn  near 
together,  so  the  hills  and  mountains  on 
the  map  become  dark ;  if  the  ground  is 
less  hilly,  the   lines  are  farther  apart; 
and  where  it  is  level,  the  lines  are  thin- 
ner, and  the  appearance  of  the  map  is 
lighter.      In   military  maps,  a  definite 
scale  of  shading  is  used.     Hachures  are 
used  in  the  Eclectic  series  of  geogra-    Fig.  10.  — Contour 
phies,  and  in  Baedeker's  guide-books.   Liues  round  a  mu' 
In  Barnes's   new  geography,  the  relief  is  given  in   a  very 
striking  way  by  woodcuts  which   give  panoramic  views  of 
a  whole  grand  division  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

But  the  third  system  is  the  most  accurate  of  all,  and  is 
rapidly  coming  into  use.  Instead  of  hill-shading,  a  number 
of  curved  lines  are  traced  over  the  country,  as  in  the  map 
on  p.  269.  These  curves  are  called  contour-lines.  Each 
curve  represents  the  same  height,  and  the  distance  from 
one  curve  to  another  always  represents  one  hundred  feet  or 
one  thousand  feet,  according  to  the  scale.  (See  Fig.  10.) 

The  best  political  maps  contain  clear  outlines,  moderate 


IIO  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

colors,  variety  of  type,  railroads  in  red,  and  the  canals 
shown  by  proper  lines ;  also  head  of  navigation,  population 
of  important  towns,  ocean-currents,  steamship  routes,  etc., 
such  as  are  given  in  Barnes's  geography. 

Hughes'  political  wall-maps  are  very  good.  But  we  be- 
lieve much  more  can  be  taught  by  the  use  of  maps  than 
has  ever  yet  been  dreamed  of.  There  should  be  maps  to 
show  the  trunk  railroads,  the  lines  of  foreign  commerce,  the 
leading  productions,  manufactures,  comparative  population, 
etc.,  for  the  world,  as  General  Walker  has  shown  similar 
facts  in  the  last  census  report. 

Map-Drawing. 

This  department  of  geography  is  frequently  a  source  of 
much  vexation  among  teachers.  On  no  subject  pertaining 
to  this  study  is  there  a  wider  difference  of  opinion.  The 
opinions  now  held  by  the  author  on  this  subject  are  very 
different  from  those  believed  and  practised  a  few  years  ago. 
His  present  conclusions  have  been  reached  after  much 
thought  and  experiment. 

Map-drawing  is  a  means  rather  than  an  end.  Its  great 
object  is  to  help  the  pupil  fix  in  his  memory  the  geographi- 
cal facts  taught.  Through  the  map  the  pupil  should  see,  as 
through  a  lens,  the  beautiful  world  beyond.  Maps,  then, 
should  be  made  for  use,  rather  than  for  beauty.  The 
mechanical  parts  should  be  done  in  as  easy  and  as  rapid 
a  manner  as  possible,  that  more  time  may  be  given  for  the 
educational  part. 

If  the  outlines  are  to  be  drawn,  then  some  simple  system 
of  diagram  is  desirable  as  helpful  in  securing,  with  the  least 
possible  delay,  a  reasonable  accuracy, 


DRAWING  MAPS  III 

Different  Methods. 

(#)   Diagram  of  squares  and  rectangles. 

This  method  is  very  common,  but  not  on  that  account 
the  best.  After  examining  several  of  these  plans,  we  believe 
the  system  invented  and  published  by  F.  E.  Bangs,  Wooster 
Grammar  School,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  is  the  best  of  the 
kind. 

(b)  Instead   of  artificial  squares   and   rectangles,  some 
teachers  use  the  parallels  and  meridians.    It  is  claimed  for 
this  system,  that  the  pupils  learn  these  lines,  and  have  them 
in  memory  when  needed.    This  system  is  now  used  by  Princi- 
pal Henry  C.  Litchfield,  Grammar  School  No.  79,  New  York 
City,  and  very  fine  maps  are  made  by  its  use  in  that  school. 

The  objections  to  the  above  methods  are,  that  a  square 
or  rectangle  is  not  a  natural  guide  to  the  drawing  of  a 
crooked  line,  hence  many  oblique  lines  have  to  be  drawn 
in  order  to  place  the  coast-line  in  its  proper  position.  If 
both  squares  and  oblique  lines  are  drawn,  the  system  is  too 
complicated,  and  map-drawing  becomes  a  burden  instead 
of  a  pleasure.  In  drawing  South  America  by  one  plan  of 
rectangles,  one  hundred  and  seventy  words  are  to  be  memo- 
rized, and  nearly  thirty  unconnected  facts.  The  same 
objection  can  be  brought  against  the  use  of  parallels  and 
meridians ;  viz.,  too  many  lines  must  be  learned  which  are 
of  no  future  value. 

(c)  By  triangulation. 

The  simplest  and  easiest  method  of  drawing  correct 
outlines  thus  far  examined  is  Apgar's  System  of  Triangu- 
lation. There  is  less  here  to  commit  to  memory  than  in 
other  systems.  Instead  of  a  hundred  and  seventy  words,  as 


[UIT17BESITT] 


112 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


in  one  method,  to  describe  the  drawing  of  South  America, 
only  eighty  are  necessary,  or  less  than  one-half.  All  the 
memorizing  is  very  easy,  because  one  line  usually  suggests 
another.  Every  line  used  has  some  relation  to  the  first  line. 


Fig.  11.  —Diagram  for  North  America. 

But  even  this  method  may  be  made  oppressive  to  the 
children  if  the  teacher  undertakes  to  teach  the  triangulation 
by  itself  as  a  memory  exercise.  It  should  be  taught  first 
with  the  outline  of  the  grand  division  as  we  show  above  in 
the  original  diagram  for  North  America  on  a  similar  plan. 


DIAGRAM   FOR  A  CONTINENT  113 

Triangulation  for  North  America. 

Let  the  children  draw  these  lines  on  their  maps  in  light 
pencil-marks ;  the  teacher  should  draw  with  the  children, 
on  the  blackboard  outline  map. 

Teacher.  Draw  a  straight  line  from  Point  Barrow,  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  North  America,  to  Point  Conception ; 
prolong  this  line  till  it  is  met  at  right  angles  by  a  line  running 
westward  from  New  Guatemala,  Central  America.  The  per- 
pendicular call  A  B  (see  Fig.  1 1  ) ;  the  base,  C  B.  Divide  A  B 
into  four  equal  parts,  and  bisect  the  lower  fourth.  What  point 
on  the  map  is  equally  distant  from  A  and  C  ? 

Class.     Strait  of  Belle  Isle. 

T.  Then  connect  Belle  Isle  and  Point  Barrow  and  New 
Guatemala.  Find  what  proportion  A  D.  is  of  A  B. 

C.     Three-fourths  of  A  B. 

T.  What  point  west  of  A  F  is  equally  distant  from  Point 
Barrow  and  Sitka  ? 

C.     Uninak  Island. 

T.     Connect  them  and  find  the  relation  of  lines. 

C.     Any  side  of  this  equilateral  triangle  is  one-fourth  of  A  B. 

T.  Connect  New  Guatemala  with  the  centre  of  A  B.  Bisect 
this  line,  and  draw  a  line  from  centre  to  St.  Lazaro  Point. 
What  is  the  relation  of  this  short  line  ? 

C.     One-eighth  of  A  B. 

T.     Draw  J  C.  and  J  K.     What  relation  is  C  B  to  A  B  ? 

C.     Three-eighths  of  A  B. 

In  this  process  the  pupils  have  thought  out,  in  the  most 
easy  and  natural  way,  the  relations  and  directions  of  the 
lines,  and  they  will  not  readily  forget  them.  Let  them  next 
draw  the  triangulation  by  itself,  and  when  completed  they 
should  study  some  of  the  points  of  coincidence  such  as  will  ^ 


114.  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

readily  occur  to  pupils  and  teachers,  After  a  sufficient 
number  have  been  noted,  the  class  is  ready  to  draw  the 
contour. 

Progressive  Maps. 

By  a  progressive  map  we  mean  one  which  is  made  by  the 
pupil,  a  part  at  a  time,  as  the  study  of  the  country  proceeds. 
Such  a  map  grows  from  day  to  day,  and  the  making  of  it  is 
a  never-failing  delight  to  the  child.  Let  us  suppose  the 
country  is  North  America. 

1.  The  class  first   draw  the   triangulation   as   previously 
indicated.     (See  Fig.  n,  p.  112.) 

2.  Then  the  outline  is  drawn,  after  this  subject  has  been 
carefully  considered  by  teacher  and  class.     (See  Fig.  12.) 
The    general   shape    of  the    country  and    its  characteristic 
features,  as  indicated  by  its  shores,  are  now  clearly  impressed 
upon  the  child. 

3.  After  the  elevations  have  been   considered,  the  class 
take   the  next  step,  and  draw  the  mountain  ranges.     (See 

Fig-  I3-) 

4.  Then  the  rivers  are  drawn,  and  their  names  printed, 
after  the  drainage  has  been  considered.      (See  Fig.  14.) 

5.  Then  the  most  important  of  the  natural  divisions  are 
printed,  the  capitals  and  important  seaports  located. 

6.  Finally  the    productions  are    printed  in  red   ink,  the 
animals  in  some  other  color,  the  imports  are  indicated  at 
one  side,  the  directions  of  currents  are  shown,  etc. 

The  map  finally  will  look  like  the  one  in  Fig.  15,  which 
was  photographed  from  a  map  drawn  in  the  Lewis  School, 
Boston,  by  Master  Townsend.  (See  also  Figs.  4  and  1 7.) 


PROGRESSIVE  MAPS 


Fig.  12.  — Progressive  Map.    (i)  ^g-.  13.— Progressive  Map.    (2) 


Outline  Drawn  with   Help   of  Diagram.     See 
Fig.  n. 


The  Mountains  are  now  indicated. 


Fig.  15.  — Progressive  Map.     (4) 
Fig.  14.  -  Progressive  Map.     (3)         The  Important  Places,  Productions,  Animals,  etc.; 
The  Drainage  is  now  drawn.  are  located- 


Il6  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Printed  Progressive  Outline  Maps. 

Remembering  the  statement  made  in  a  former  part  of  this 
chapter,  that  the  great  object  of  the  map  drawn  by  the  pupil 
is  to  help  him  retain  the  facts  of  geography,  it  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  the  important  and  the  non-important 
facts  to  be  remembered,  that  plenty  of  time  may  be  given 
to  the  one  and  not  wasted  on  the  other. 

Those  schools  which  have  practised  any  system  of  map- 
drawing  are  certainly  far  in  advance  of  those  which  draw  no 
maps  at  all ;  but  the  question  now  arises,  Can  a  farther  step 
be  taken  by  having  a  part  of  the  map  drawn  by  the  printing- 
press  or  by  some  mechanical  means  by  which  it  will  be  done 
quickly  and  accurately? 

Many  teachers  have  found  great  difficulty  in  teaching  the 
various  methods  of  drawing  the  outlines  of  maps,  on  account 
of  the  intricate  construction-lines  required ;  and  some  have 
given  up  in  disgust  all  systems,  and  fallen  back  on  sketching 
entirely  from  memory.  To  make  a  good  outline  of  even 
the  simplest  grand  division,  by  any  method,  requires  the 
memorizing  of  an  immense  amount  of  detail.  We  were 
convinced  several  years  ago  that  to  require  in  the  lower 
classes  of  a  grammar  school  the  reproduction  from  mem- 
ory of  quite  perfect  maps,  such  as  were  shown  the  writer 
recently  from  a  certain  school  in  Boston,  was  an  act  of 
unnecessary  cruelty  to  children.  For  several  years  we  have 
urged  the  teachers  of  lower  classes  to  use  pasteboard  out- 
lines, by  means  of  which  the  pupils  trace  the  outline  on 
slate  or  paper.  This  method  has  now  become  quite  univer- 
sal for  pupils  who  have  studied  geography  one  or  two  years. 
In  visiting  Mr.  James  M.  Sawin's  school  in  Providence  a  few 


PRINTED  OUTLINE  MAPS  117 

years  ago,  we  found  that  he  was  making  outlines  for  all  the 
grades  of  his  school  by  the  use  of  the  cyclostyle.  He  con- 
sidered them  as  useful  in  the  upper  classes  as  the  lower. 
After  using  such  outlines  with  two  different  graduating 
classes,  and  watching  the  effect,  we  are  convinced  that  it  is 
better  to  furnish  the  outlines  than  to  require  the  pupils  to 
memorize  them,  for  the  following  reasons  :  — 

1.  The  furnished  outlines  avoid  the  task  of  memorizing 
the  contour  of  a  country,  while  the  act  of  tracing  affords 
ample  opportunity  for  acquiring  a  definite  knowledge  of  its 
shape,  its  windings,  indentations,  and  projections. 

2.  They  save  a  large  amount  of  time,  which  time  can  be 
given  to  the  more  important  study  of  the  interior,  —  the  sur- 
face, climate,  productions,  and  their  relation  to  commerce ; 
the  growth  of  cities  and  towns,  and  causes  of  the  increase 
of  population,  etc. 

3.  They   avoid   the    memorizing    of    the    more    or   less 
intricate  construction-lines  adopted  in  other  systems. 

4.  They  keep  a  correct  form  of  the  country  under  con- 
sideration  constantly  before   the  pupil.     This   advantage  is 
obvious. 

5.  They  favor  economy  of  energy  and  patience. 

6.  They  are  generally  useful,      (a)  These  maps  may  be 
used  to  indicate,  besides  the  usual  facts  placed  on  maps,  the 
locations  of  areas  of  mineral  deposits,  of  forest  growth,  of 
prairies,  deserts,  plateaus,  of  the  various  kinds  of  soil,  of  sta- 
ple products,  of  dense  population,  of  manufacturing  districts, 
etc. 

(b)  For   developing   the    features   of    continents,    made 
specially  prominent  in  physical  geography. 

(c)  In  connection  with  the  study  of  ancient  history. 


n8 


METHODS   AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


(d)  In  modern  history,  the  maps  of  North  America  and 
the  United  States  may  be  used  for  indicating  the  early  dis- 
coveries, the  settlements  and  the  general  development  of  the 


Fig.  16.— Heath's  Progressive  Outline  Map  of  North  America. 

As  given  to  the  pupil,     (i) 

continent,  the  colonies,  and  the  nation,  in  connection  with 
the  text-book  study  of  these  features.  No  time  can  be 
spared,  in  history,  for  practice  in  map-drawing. 

(<?)   For  rapid  and  thorough  tests  of  pupils'  knowledge  of 


HEATH'S  OUTLINE  MAPS 


political,  descriptive,  and  physical  geography,  and  of  many 
facts  in  history,  no  series  of  questions  and  answers  can  equal 
in  three  hours  what  may  be  ascertained,  practically,  of  their 


Fig-.  17.  —Heath's  Progressive  Outline  Map 
after  the  pupil  has  drawn  and  filled  in  the  map.     (Photographed.)     (2) 

knowledge  of  these  subjects  by  these  outlines  in  thirty  min- 
utes. Such  a  map  can  be  easily  and  rapidly  inspected  by 
the  examiner. 

7.  They  are  pleasing  to  the  pupil.     He  takes  to  them  at 


120  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

once ;  while  the  memorizing  of  the  construction-lines  of 
some  methods  proves  a  fatiguing  burden,  and  often  dulls 
his  interest.1 

Large  Maps. 

In  studying  geography  or  history,  large  outline  maps  are 
a  prime  necessity.  These  can  be  made  on  the  board  by 
the  help  of  stencil  outlines,  or  by  transfer  maps.  (See 
Chap.  V.,  p.  82). 

We  once  enlarged  a  map  in  this  way  :  A  photographic 
map  of  the  United  States,  called  "  a  slide,"  was  placed  in 
the  solar  camera,  and  the  outline  the  needed  size  was 
thrown  on  a  large  sheet  of  manilla  paper,  and  marked  in 
with  pencil.  In  this  manner  we  obtained  a  very  perfect 
map,  the  coast-line,  rivers,  lakes,  etc.,  being  as  perfect  as 
in  the  original  engraved  map  from  which  the  photograph 
had  been  taken.2 

1  But  not  all  teachers  have  time  to  make  their  own  outline  maps.     This  want  has 
been  recently  supplied  by  Messrs.  Heath  &  Co.,  who  have  just  published  a  set  of 
progressive  outline  maps  of  the  different  grand  divisions  and  the  world  on  Mercator's 
projection.     These  maps  are  printed  in  light  ink,  on  good  drawing-paper,  ten  inches  by 
twelve  inches  in  size,  being  about  the  same  as  the  pages  of  most  of  the  common-school 
geographies.     The  outline  without  too  much  detail,  some  of  the  adjoining  islands, 
a  part  of  the  adjacent  grand  division,  a  few  of  the  principal  circles,  a  lake  or  two, 
are  the  features  indicated.     Space  is  left  for  the  pupil  to  fill  in  the  mountains,  rivers, 
important   political  divisions,  and  print  the  names  of  cities,  natural  divisions,  pro- 
ductions, etc.,  as  the  study  progresses.    At  the  close  of  the  study,  such  outlines  form 
one  of  the  most  convenient  ways  of  testing  the  knowledge  of  pupils  who  may  be 
required  to  reproduce  the  first-mentioned  map  irorn  memory. 

2  An   excellent   large   outline   map   of  the   United   States,   edited   by  Professors 
Channing  and  Hart,  Harvard  College,  useful  for  all   kinds   of  class   instruction,  is 
also  published  and  sold  for  sixty  cents,  mailed,  by  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

PICTURES   AND   OBJECTS 


VISUAL  images,  or  pictures  of  objects,  constitute  the  staple  of  our 
ordinary  recallings.  —  Sully. 


BOOKS    FOR    CONSULTATION 


[The  list  of  books  pertaining  to   this  chapter  will  be  found  on 
p.  132.] 


CHAPTER   VIII 
PICTURES  AND  OBJECTS 

SIGHT  —  PICTURES  AND  OBJECTS  —  ORBIS  PICTUS  —  ILLUSTRATED  BOOKS  —  IMPROVE- 
MENT IN  PICTURES  —  ADVANTAGES  OF  PICTURES  —  SOURCES  OF  PICTURES — LIST 
OF  ILLUSTRATED  WORKS  —  OBJECTS — CABINETS  —  LOAN  EXHIBITION  —  LIST  OF 
ARTICLES  —  HOW  TO  GATHER  A  COLLECTION  —  TROPICAL  VEGETATION 

IT  is  generally  agreed  among  psychologists  that  sight  takes 
the  lead  as  the  channel  of  perception.  Spencer  says, 
"The  child's  restless  observation,  instead  of  being  ignored 
or  checked,  should  be  diligently  ministered  to,  and  made 
as  accurate  as  possible."  Sully  further  asserts  :  "  Whatever 
tends,  like  a  picture  or  object,  to  excite  a  pleasurable  state 
of  mind  in  the  child  at  the  time  of  learning,  will  arouse  the 
attention  and  deepen  the  impression  made  upon  the  mind, 
and  consequently  the  ability  to  recall  the  matter  which  has 
been  thus  presented."  Dr.  Galton,  in  his  recent  book  on 
Human  Faculty,  instances  that  eighty-eight  English  persons 
out  of  one  hundred  who  were  tested  remembered  the  scene 
at  the  breakfast- table  by  mental  imagery.  In  a  similar  test 
made  with  our  present  class  of  boys,  all  but  one  could  recall 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  breakfast-table.  When  we  pronounced 
the  name  Colorado  River,  nearly  all  reported  that  they 
formed  a  picture  of  a  river  flowing  between  lofty  walls  of 
stone,  such  as  they  had  previously  seen  shown  to  them  by 
Adams's  solar  camera.  Three- fourths  of  the  class  recalled 
the  history  lesson  by  seeing  the  picture  of  the  printed  page. 

123 


124  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

We  once  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  child,  two  and  a  half 
years  old,  Prang's  natural-history  books,  containing  those 
richly  colored  pictures  of  birds  and  animals,  and  also  a  set 
of  paper  animals.  In  a  very  short  time  this  little  specimen 
.  learned  the  names  of  thirty  different  animals,  which  she 
would  .  repeat  with  the  greatest  glee.  She  had  learned 
these  names  without  the  slightest  effort.  Seeing,  learning, 
enjoying,  were  identical  to  her  young  mind. 

There  are  two  practical  ways  of  conveying  knowledge  to 
children  in  the  schoolroom  through  the  sense  of  sight,  — 
one  by  means  of  pictures,  and  one  by  means  of  objects. 
The  latter  is  far  more  instructive,  the  former  more  con- 
venient and  more  widely  applicable.  The  small  plant,  the 
piece  of  wood,  the  insect,  the  fruit,  and  the  specimen  of 
stone  can  be  used  conveniently  as  objects ;  but  not  the  big 
tree  of  California,  the  Rocky  Mountain  peak,  the  Yosemite 
Valley,  the  elephant,  or  the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  The  teacher, 
then,  should  use  objects  as  far  as  practicable,  and  supply 
the  deficiency  with  pictures. 

The  universal  use  of  pictures  at  the  present  time,  in  so 
many  departments  of  education  and  business,  is  one  weighty 
proof  of  their  value.  But  it  has  not  always  been  so.  Two 
hundred  years  ago  Comenius  made  the  first  pictorial  text- 
book, which  was  called  "  Orbis  Pictus,"  and  which  for  one 
hundred  years  was  a  favorite  with  old  and  young  in  Europe. 
The  illustrations,  however,  were  very  inferior.  Years  rolled 
on,  but  no  second  Comenius  appeared.  Art  confined  itself 
to  Madonnas,  instead  of  trying  to  help  students  understand 
their  stupid  text-books.  A  very  rare  and  costly  geography, 
called  the  "Geographical  Grammar,"  published  in  1754, 
does  not  contain  a  single  picture,  but  it  has  many  fine  maps 


KINDS  OF  PICTURES  125 

and  much  red  type.  Forty  years  ago  pictures  began  to  be 
used ;  but  what  simple  works  they  were,  can  be  learned  by 
examining  an  edition  of  Mitchell's  Geography,  published 
in  1848.  The  great  contrast  between  the  illustrations  now 
given  in  text-books,  and  those  employed  forty  years  ago, 
is  vividly  shown  by  the  pictures  given  in  Figs.  18  and  19. 
Even  fifteen  years  ago  pictures  were  quite  sparingly  used, 
and  the  quality  was  poor.  During  the  last  ten  years  there 


Fig.  18.  —Preaching:  to  the  Indians. 

Showing  style  of  wood-engraving  used  in  text-books  forty  years  ago. 

has  been  made,  especially  in  this  country,  immense  prog- 
ress in  the  art  of  wood-engraving.  This  is  shown  by  com- 
paring the  pictures  in  "  Harper's  Magazine  "  of  a  recent  date 
with  a  number  printed  twelve  or  fifteen  years  ago.  "  Har- 
per's," the  "  Century,"  and  "  St.  Nicholas,"  with  their  monthly 
instalment  of  beautiful  pictures,  have  educated  the  people 
to  appreciate  and  demand  good  pictures,  and  plenty  of 
them.  It  is  certain  that  pictures  are  being  used  to  convey 
information  as  well  as  pleasure,  more  and  more  every  year. 


126 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


The  ordinary  illustrations  in  quality  and  quantity,  such  as 
are  found  in  " Around  the  World"  by  Prime,  "Compendium 
of  Geography  and  Travel "  by  Stanford,  "  Holland  and  its 
People  "  by  De  Amicis,  and  Ober's  "  Mexico,"  no  longer  sat- 
isfy the  public  reader.  He  begins  to  call  for  works  of  superb 
and  costly  illustrations,  such  as  can  be  found  only  in  "India" 
by  Rousselet,  "Nile  Sketches"  by  Werner,  "Spain"  by  Davil- 


Fig.  19.  — New  Style  Picture. 
Showing  style  of  wood-engraving  at  the  present  day. 

lion,  "  South  America  "  by  Marcoy,  and  "  Egypt  "  by  Ebers. 
Photographs  are  now  being  used  largely  for  illustrating  books. 
Persons  of  taste  and  leisure  will  find  both  pleasure  and 
information  in  examining  such  costly  works  as  "  China  "  by 
Thompson,  "  Thebes "  by  Abney,  the  "  Royal  Photograph 
Album  of  India"  by  Wilson,  "Jerusalem  "  by  Tristram,  the 
"  Works  of  France  "  in  five  volumes,  and  many  others  in  the 
large  public  libraries.  One  set  of  these  books  would  cost 


PRESENT  USE  OF  PICTURES  I2*J 

a  small  fortune ;  but  there  are  books  finely  illustrated  with 
photographs  and  chromos,  which  come  within  the  purchasing 
power  of  common  people,  such  as  Leyland's  "  South  Africa," 
Jordan's  "Trip  to  Burmah,"  Rein's  "Japan,"  Lady  Brassey's 
"  Tahiti,"  the  "  Indian  Alps  "  by  a  Lady  Pioneer,  "  Wonders 
of  the  Yosemite  "  by  Kneeland,  etc. 

Most  of  our  text-books  now,  even  the  readers  and  spellers, 
are  handsomely  illustrated.  Upon  some  of  the  new  geog- 
raphies, a  wealth  of  illustration  has  been  lavished,  until  the 
pictures  have  become  by  far  the  principal  and  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  book.  Juvenile  magazines  and  books  of 
travel  are  to-day  better  illustrated  than  royal  editions  were 
a  few  years  ago.  For  proof  of  this  statement  examine  such 
books  as  "The  Boy  Travellers  "  by  Knox,  McCabe's  "Young 
Folks  Abroad,"  "Little  People  of  Asia"  by  Miller,  Hale's 
"  Family  Flight,"  and  "Zig-Zag  Journeys"  by  Butterworth. 

Every  year  lecturers  are  using  pictures  and  charts  more 
and  more  to  convey  information  to  their  listeners.  By  a 
series  of  carefully  prepared  charts  and  pictures,  President 
Walker  of  the  School  of  Technology  was  able  to  make  the 
ordinarily  dry  and  uninteresting  statistics  of  a  census-report 
eloquent  and  impressive. 

Business  men  also  have  learned  the  great  value  of  illustra- 
tion to  help  in  commerce  and  trade.  Chromos,  photo- 
graphs and  lithographs  are  in  constant  use.  The  business 
man  always  appeals  to  the  eye. 

Advantages  of  Pictures. 

i.  They  convey  correct  ideas  to  children.  Read  a  de- 
scription of  a  place,  building,  scene,  or  the  face  and  appear- 
ance of  a  famous  man,  and  then  look  upon  a  picture  or 


128  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

photograph  of  the  same,  and  notice  how  much  better  the 
latter  satisfies  the  demands  of  the  mind.  How  very  little 
a  person  would  obtain  from  the  excellent  descriptions  in 
Thompson's  "  China,"  compared  with  what  he  would  derive 
from  the  photographs,  if  he  could  use  only  one  method  of 
obtaining  the  information  ! 

2.  Pictures  convey  this  accurate  information  very  quickly. 
There  is  less  need  of  drill  and  review. 

3.  They  create  great  interest,  as  the  children  have  some- 
thing to  look  at.     They  introduce  variety. 

4.  Attention  is  easily  secured. 

5 .  Discipline  is  greatly  lessened. 

6.  Information  thus  obtained  where  interest  and  attention 
are  good,  is  not  easily  forgotten.     Once  show  a  class  of  fifty 
pupils  a  picture  of  some  small  town,  and  forty-five  or  more 
will  be  able  to  tell  you  something  about  the  place.     Tell  the 
same  class  half  a  dozen  facts  about  another  place  of  equal 
importance,  and  only  a  few  will  remember  with  equal  accu- 
racy. 

A  few  teachers,  who  employ  pictures,  sometimes  make 
the  mistake  of  showing  too  many  during  a  term,  and,  also, 
of  showing  too  many  at  one  time.  This  is  likely  to  lead  to 
confusion,  and  to  the  feeling  that  school  is  nothing  more 
than  a  picture-gallery,  and  children  were  made  to  be  enter- 
tained. The  teacher  must  guard  against  this  wrong  impres- 
sion by  showing  only  a  few  pictures  at  one  time,  and  these 
should  all  bear  on  one  subject.  A  recitation  should  follow 
the  exhibit  to  test  the  knowledge  obtained,  and  cultivate  the 
power  of  observation. 


WHERE  TO   FIND  PICTURES  129 

Sources  of  Pictures. 

If  teachers  wish  for  pictures  to  illustrate  their  geography 
lessons,  where  can  they  obtain  them  ?  We  answer  by  telling 
you  where  we  obtained  those  in  our  possession.  We  re- 
ceived the  first  ones  from  the  pupils.  In  the  younger 
classes,  children  will,  with  a  little  encouragement  from  the 
teacher,  bring  hundreds  of  pictures,  and  gladly  give  them  to 
the  school.  A  teacher  in  the  Everett  School,  Boston,  has 
thousands  of  pictures,  which  she  uses  very  skilfully  in  her 
daily  class-work  ;  and  a  very  large  part  of  them  have  been 
contributed  by  her  pupils.  Teachers  and  pupils  can  find 
quite  a  supply  of  serviceable  pictures  among  the  numerous 
advertisements.  Western  railroads,  for  several  years  back, — 
and  recently  Eastern  railroads,  —  have  published  and  freely 
given  away  valuable  maps,  and  tourists'  and  excursionists' 
guides  under  the  pleasant  name  of  "Summer  Saunterings."  l 
They  are  generally  filled  with  splendid  pictures,  and  such  as 
would  be  helpful  in  the  schoolroom.  Houghton,  Mifflin, 
&  Co.  publish  and  give  away  an  illustrated  catalogue  of 
American  authors,  which  is  invaluable.  John  James  &  Sons 
issue  a  little  calendar  to  advertise  their  needles,  which  con- 
tains a  fine  picture  of  Shakspeare's  house.  A  prominent 
fur  store  in  Boston  once  sent  out  a  series  of  photographs  of 
Harvard  University.  A  friend  recently  sent  us  his  circular 
of  "  Western  Investments,"  and  on  the  front  page  we  found 
an  excellent  picture  of  a  Western  prairie-home.  A  firm  in 
Boston  has  been  sending  out,  to  those  who  forwarded  a 
few  postage-stamps,  a  series  of  fine  chromo-pictures  of  the 
different  spices."  Many  advertisements  have  good  pictures 
of  Niagara  Falls,  the  Old  Mill,  or  Washington  Monument. 

1  See  page  79. 


130  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Hundreds  of  others  will  come  to  your  hands  just  as  soon 
as  you  begin  to  look  and  to  inquire, 

Very  valuable  pictures  are  found  in  the  best  geographies, 
If  the  other  parts  of  the  geography  are  tied  with  a  string 
before  passing,  the  child  will  have  no  temptation  to  "  peep  " 
at  pictures  not  bearing  on  the  subject. 

Numerous  available  pictures  may  also  be  obtained  from 
the  illustrated  papers.  In  the  March  (1885)  "Century" 
nearly  fifty  pictures  are  published,  which  would  naturally  be 
used  by  a  wise  teacher  during  a  year's  instruction,  —  fifty 
useful  pictures  for  thirty-five  cents  !  "  Harper's  "  July  ( 1 885  ) 
number  is  nearly  as  good.  Many  of  the  missionary  maga- 
zines contain  helpful  pictures.  Each  number  of  the  "  Mis- 
sionary Herald "  (published  at  i  Somerset  Street,  Boston) 
contains  several  good  pictures  and  interesting  matter  for 
"Young  People."  "The  Mission  Day  Spring  "  (published 
at  same  place,  only  twenty  cents  a  year)  has  much  valuable 
illustrative  matter.  "  China's  Millions "  (published  at  12 
Paternoster  Buildings,  London)  is  illustrated  with  good 
pictures,  many  of  them  being  taken  from  such  valuable 
books  as  Thompson's  "  China." 

Pictures  of  this  grade  need  to  be  arranged  and  classified 
to  be  of  much  use.  The  most  economical  way  to  do  this 
is  to  cut  the  pictures  out,  and  arrange  alphabetically  in  the 
Standard  Letter-File.  Then  if  you  wish  to  illustrate  to 
the  class  the  habits  of  the  camel,  for  instance,  you  take  from 
your  picture-album  a  representation  of  the  above  animal, 
and  hang  it  on  the  wall  of  the  room,  or  mount  it  for  the 
time  being  in  a  temporary  frame.  Some  teachers  find  a 
panorama,  in  which  all  available  pictures  pertaining  to  one 
subject  are  mounted  on  long  strips  of  cloth,  a  very  conven- 


A  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATED  WORKS  131 

lent  form  for  review.  Others,  with  a  little  natural  talent  for 
sketching,  can  readily  draw  effective  pictures  for  schoolroom 
use  upon  the  blackboard  in  colored  crayon.  If  these  pic- 
tures are  sketched  upon  paper,  pasteboard,  or  cloth,  they  can 
be  preserved  from  year  to  year.  Mrs.  Blan chard,  of  the 
Shurtleff  School,  South  Boston,  has  prepared  for  her  own 
use  in  her  room  a  large  number  of  splendid  pictures,  drawn 
upon  black  cambric  with  common  white  or  colored  crayon. 
After  the  crayon  has  been  treated  with  artist's  fixative,  it 
does  not  rub,  and  these  pictures  are  easily  kept  from  one 
season  to  another. 

A  step  in  advance  of  using  the  picture  is  the  use  of  the 
medallion  where  it  is  possible.  Mr.  Lyford,  principal  of 
the  Winslow-street  Grammar  School,  Worcester,  has  created 
great  enthusiasm  in  his  history  classes,  by  showing  a  set  of 
fine  medallions  which  he  made  himself,  of  the  great  men 
of  the  country. 

Illustrated  Works. 

The  principal  source  for  pictures  is,  however,  found  in 
illustrated  books.  In  addition  to  those  already  given,  your 
attention  is  called  to  the  following  list.  First  of  all  we 
should  place  these  five  different  geographical  readers,  viz., 
Blackie's,  Whitehall,  Philips's,  "The  World  at  Home,"  and 
"Standard."1  Each  of  the  series  contains  six  volumes,  well 
graded  for  the  various  classes  of  a  grammar  school.  The 
United  States,  however,  in  each  case  is  inadequately  treated, 
as  these  are  all  English  publications.  The  last  named,  the 
"  Standard,"  is  written  in  the  best  style,  but  the  illustrations 
are  the  poorest. 

We  present  below  a  short  list  of  finely  illustrated  books, 
which  have  been  very  helpful  in  the  schoolroom  in  teaching 
the  various  countries. 

1  Published  by  William  Ibbister,  London. 


132 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 


Nearly  all  the  books  are  illustrated  with  woodcuts.      A 
list  of  very  costly  books  is  given  near  the  end  of  chap.  xx. 


The  World  by  the  Fire  Side,    KIRBY. 
Through  Spain  on  Donkey  Back. 
Wanderings  in  Four  Continents. 
The  Bodley  Family. 
Rip  Van  Winkle's  Journeys. 
American    Explorations    in 

the  Ice  Zones NOURSE. 

Pen  and  Pencil  Pictures, 

MANNING  AND  OTHERS. 

[There   are  about  a   dozen  of   the   last 
named  books,  all  superbly  illustrated.] 
Voyage  of  the  Vega.     NORDENSKIOLD. 
Yachting  in  the  Arctic  Seas,  LAMONT. 

Greenland PROF.  RINK. 

Homes  of  Americans  .  .  .  LAMB. 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  SMALLEY. 

The  Great  South KING. 

New  Colorado HAYES. 

Brazil SMITH. 

Guiana THURN. 

Land  of  Bolivar SPENCE. 

Patagonia BEERBOHM. 

Peru SQUIER. 

South  America BATES. 

Interior  of  Africa      .     .     .   BURCHALL 

Africa JONES. 

STANLEY'S   Congo,    and   Through   the 

Dark  Continent. 

African  Travel  .  .  .  SOUTHWORTH. 
Up  the  Nile  .  .  .  Miss  EDWARDS. 

Egypt LORING. 

Egypt STUART. 

Pyramids  of  Gizeh VYSE. 

Morocco DE  AMICIS. 

Sports  of  Southern  Africa     .    HARRIS. 

China COLQUHOUN. 

Mongolia PREJEVALSKY. 

The  Middle  Kingdom  .  .  WILLIAMS. 
Palestine,  BURT,  TRISTRAM,  TILLOTSON. 
East  of  the  Jordan  .  .  .  MERRILL. 
A  Civilian's  Wife  in  India  .  .  KING. 
Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan  MACGREGOR. 
England  to  Delhi  .  .  .  MATHESON. 

Illustrated  India STONE. 

Gold  Fields  in  India  .  .  JENNINGS. 
Japan  and  the  Japanese  .  HUMBERT. 


The  Mikado's  Empire  .     .     .  GRIFFIS. 

China  and  Japan OLIVER. 

Unexplored  Beluchistan  .  .  FLOYER. 
The  Black  Sea,  Caucasus,  etc., 

CUNYNGHAME. 

In  the  East FIELD. 

Babylon  and  Nineveh      .      NEWMAN. 

Turkestan SCHUYLER. 

Through  Siberia  ....    LANDSELL. 

Australia POWELL. 

Victoria  in  1880. 

Head  Hunters  of  Borneo      .     .  BOCK. 

Fire  Fountains    .     .    Miss  CUMMINGS. 

Coral  Lands COOPER. 

The  Far  East MACLEOD. 

New  Zealand  .     .    VAN  HOCHELETTE. 

Tyrol WARING. 

Etchings  on  the  Loire      .     .  GEORGE. 

Normandy MACQUOID. 

Rivers  of  France TURNER. 

The  Bride  of  the  Rhine    .     .  WARING. 

Berlin VIGETILLY. 

A  Tour  in  Greece  ....  FARRER. 
Picturesque  Holland  .  .  HARVARD. 
Sketches  and  Studies  in  Italy, 

SYMONDS. 
Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun, 

Du  CHAILLU. 
Voyage  in  The  Sunbeam, 

MRS.  BRASSEY. 

Voyage  of  The  Challenger,  THOMSON. 
Turkey  in  Europe. 

Siberia SEEBOHM. 

Caspian  Region MARVIN. 

Spanish  Vistas     ....      LOTHROP. 
Switzerland  and  the  Swiss. 
Round  the  World. 
CURTIS,  KINGSTON,  PRIME,  HINCHLIFF, 

LEYLAND,  SIMPSON. 

Southern  Europe      .     .     .     RODWELL. 
Recent  Polar  Voyages. 
New  Hebrides      ....    MARKHAM. 
Nassau  and  the  Bahamas  .     .     IVES. 
Between  the  Amazon  and  the  Andes, 

MULHALL. 

Le  Tour  du  Monde. 


CABINETS 


133 


Objects  or  Specimens. 

Real  objects  will  be  found  greater  and  more  impressive 
than  pictures  or  medallion  heads,  to  illustrate  any  study. 
The  question  will  immediately  arise,  How  can  poor  teachers 
obtain  these  things?  Do  you  expect  us  to  purchase  them 
from  our  small  salaries?  No,  not  exactly.  We  simply  ask 
you  to  begin  directly  a  museum  or  a  cabinet.  Locate  this 
collection  somewhere  in  the  school-building,  in  an  empty 
room,  unfurnished  attic,  closet,  chest  of  drawers,  cabinet, 
book-case,  drawer ;  or,  if  you  can  do  no  better,  in  a  neat 
box  on  your  desk.  Put  in  this  collection  some  few  articles 
to  start  it,  such  as  specimens  of  Colorado  stones  recently 
advertised  by  H.  H.  Tammen  &  Co.  of  Denver,  Colo.,  or 
stones  from  your  own  home  collection,  or  some  specimens 
of  tropical  vegetation. 

Having  done  so  much,  then  fill  up  your  cabinet  by 
persistent  begging  and  borrowing.  Educational  begging  is 
always  honorable.  Ask  your  pupils  to  bring  objects  to 
illustrate  geography,  history,  biography,  and  other  studies, 
or  whatever  is  curious.  You  can  call  it  "  A  Collection  of 
Educational  Curios." 

At  first  you  may  encourage  the  pupils  to  enjoy  the  benefit 
of  such  a  collection,  by  suddenly  proposing  that  next  Friday 
will  be  the  great  loan  day  for  Europe,  or  whatever  country 
you  happen  to  be  studying.  Ask  each  pupil  to  bring  some 
little  article  from  home,  which  came  directly  or  indirectly 
from  across  the  Atlantic.  The  results,  after  the  class  become 
interested,  will  perhaps  surprise  the  faithless.  One  of  the 
lady  teachers  in  the  Lewis  Grammar  School,  Boston,  in  a 
class  of  boys  between  eleven  and  thirteen,  had,  last  year, 


134  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

over  two  hundred  interesting  articles,  brought  in  this  way 
as  a  loan  exhibition,  to  illustrate  three  different  countries. 
One  of  the  articles  was  worth  three  hundred  dollars,  and 
another  of  priceless  value  because  not  easily  duplicated. 

Another  teacher  in  a  lower  class  of  girls,  tried  the  same 
experiment  with  more  gratifying  results,  having  one  hundred 
and  twenty-four  articles  brought  in  one  afternoon  to  illustrate 
Europe. 

Miss  Backup,  Dearborn  School,  Boston,  has  a  class  of 
girls,  third  year  of  study  in  a  grammar  school,  whose  parents 
are  not  blessed  with  great  riches ;  yet  the  members  of  this 
class  were  so  enthusiastic  about  the  loan  exhibition,  that 
they  contributed  the  following  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
three  different  articles  :  — 

Cotton,  cotton-seed,  rice,  tobacco,  sweet-potatoes,  sugar-cane, 
sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  vanilla,  vanilla-bean,  cacao-bean,  chocolate, 
lemons,  orange-tree,  orange,  dates,  figs,  bananas,  cloves,  nutmegs, 
ginger-root,  ginger,  cochineal,  indigo,  sponge,  coral,  southern-moss, 
wheat,  flour,  corn,  rye,  oats,  barley,  hemp,  flax-seed,  wine,  raisins 
(CaL),  grapes,  white  wool,  black  wrool,  onion,  beef,  pork,  sea-beans, 
sea-oats,  tonga-beans,  banana-seeds,  resin,  turpentine,  petroleum, 
sulphur,  salt,  rock-salt,  coal,  furs,  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  tin, 
iron,  ores  containing  gold,  silver,  copper,  quicksilver,  iron,  lead, 
silver  and  mica,  glass  and  mica,  iron  pyrite. 

Quartz,  mica,  lime-rock,  garnets,  granite,  marble,  meteor,  basalt, 
coquina,  satin  spar  from  Colorado,  opal  from  New  Mexico,  copper 
pyrite  from  Utah,  chalcedony  from  Wyoming,  azurite  from  Utah, 
orthite  from  Nevada,  malachite  from  Arizona,  agate  from  Wyoming, 
jasper  from  Wyoming,  mahogany,  rosewood,  ebony,  oak,  maple,  red 
cedar,  hickory,  sea-horse,  skates'  teeth,  seal's  head,  walrus's  tooth, 
shark's  egg,  conch-shell,  Indian  arrows,  buffalo's  horns,  whale's  tooth, 
vegetable  ivory. 

Buffalo's  hoofs,  petrified  honeycomb,  partridge's  tail,  deer's  foot, 


LOAN   COLLECTIONS  135 

Indian  relics,  shell  from  California,  172  stereoscope  views,  33  picture- 
books,  20  pictures. 

Clay  from  Gay  Head,  stone  from  the  top  of  Mount  Washington, 
petrified  wood  from  California,  stones  showing  the  impression  of 
leaves  and  shells,  California  coal  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  heart,  several 
wreaths  of  shell  and  fish-scale  work  done  by  the  negroes  of  the  West 
Indies,  tortoise-shell  and  a  turtle-shell,  a  piece  of  marble  from  the 
Washington  Monument,  pottery  from  the  West  Indies,  stones  con- 
taining garnets,  gulf-weed  from  Gulf  Stream,  shells  from  the  West 
Indies,  a  rock  from  New  Hampshire,  asbestos  from  New  Hampshire, 
doll's  hat  from  Florida,  stone  from  Niagara  made  by  the  spray, 
curiosities  from  Boston  fire,  a  piece  of  granite  from  Grant's  tomb, 
Chinese  god  from  California,  a  piece  of  the  old  elm-tree,  petrified 
fish's  eye. 

These  specimens  illustrated  North  America. 

Miss  Lynch  of  the  same  school,  in  a  small  class  of  girls, 
met  with  equal  success  when  her  pupils  had  a  loan  collec- 
tion on  Europe. 

A  few  exhibitions  of  this  character  will  create  great  inter- 
est in  the  permanent  collection.  A  little  quiet  persevering 
asking,  a  readiness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  accept 
gladly  at  first  any  specimen  brought,  to  thank  the  donor, 
and  place  his  name  on  the  marking-tag,  will  soon  bear  fruit. 
By  and  by  your  pupils  will  in  turn  become  first-class  beg- 
gars, and  then  your  success  is  assured. 

.  Several  teachers  have  told  us  of  their  successful  attempts 
in  this  line.  Miss  Spare  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  has  several 
hundred  specimens,  nearly  all  given  by  her  pupils,  who 
come  from  the  homes  of  the  ordinary  people.  Mr.  Pritch- 
ard,  master  of  the  Comins  School,  Boston,  possesses  a  very 
large  and  well-adapted  collection  contributed  by  his  second 
class  in  about  three  years.  This  museum  contains  many 
valuable  coins  and  historical  relics,  as  well  as  specimens  to 


136         METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

illustrate  geography ;  every  one  of  the  many  hundred  arti- 
cles was  given  by  the  children. 

Encouraged  by  the  efforts  of  this  gentleman,  we  began 
three  years  ago  a  collection  which  has  enlarged  by  a  little 
individual  help  from  teachers,  till  it  has  become  a  real  aux- 
iliary in  school  work.  There  are  now  several  hundred  valu- 
able specimens  belonging  to  the  collection  ;  "  valuable,"  we 
mean,  for  school  purposes.  North  America,  Europe,  and 
Asia  are  best  represented.  The  quickness  with  which  the 
children  responded  to  requests  for  articles  astonished  us, 
and  encourages  us  to  advise  every  teacher  to  start  immedi- 
ately a  collection.  Pupils,  several  years  after  leaving  school, 
have  remembered  the  cabinet,  and  in  their  wanderings 
have  tried  to  supplement  deficiencies.  One  boy,  who  was 
a  "  trial,*'  sent  me  from  California  by  express  a  centipede 
and  a  "  Pacific  potato-bug ;  "  another,  from  South  Carolina, 
a  fine  specimen  of  a  cotton-plant ;  a  third,  from  New  York, 
different  specimens  of  wood-pulp. 

Finding  the  children  did  not  bring  in  specimens  of  tropi- 
cal vegetation  to  the  extent  desired,  we  helped  them  in  this 
direction  by  purchasing  several  specimens  of  tropical  flora 
from  Jamaica.  The  articles  thus  added,  and  which  have 
always  created  more  or  less  interest,  consist  of  sections  of 
exogenous  and  endogenous  woods,  sea-bean,  coffee,  sweet 
sap ;  frond,  spadix,  and  shell  of  the  cocoa-nut ;  bread-fruit 
(dried),  chocolate  (both  nut  and  leaf),  pineapple  fibre, 
hennequen,  bow-string  hemp,  bamboo,  mangrove,  lace  bark, 
cinchona  bark,  cinnamon  bark,  Brazilian  wood,  Brazil-nuts, 
cassava  (root  and  leaf),  leaves  of  common  tropical  vegeta- 
tion, and  about  forty  specimens  of  tropical  ferns. 


CHAPTER    IX 

MISCELLANEOUS   DEVICES 


To  interest  children  we  must  adopt  a  better  mode  of  instruction, 
by  which  the  children  are  less  left  to  themselves,  less  thrown  upon 
unwelcome  employment  of  passive  listening,  but  more  aroused  by 
questions,  and  animated  by  illustrations.  —  Pestalozzi. 

137 


BOOKS    FOR    REFERENCE 


1,000  WAYS  OF  1,000  TEACHERS. 
VARIOUS  GEOGRAPHICAL  READERS. 
Such  Educational  Papers  as  THE  AMERICAN  TEACHFR, 
POPULAR  EDUCATOR,  AND  TEACHERS*  INSTITUTE. 

•38 


CHAPTER   IX 
MISCELLANEOUS   DEVICES 

DIFFERENT  SIZES  —  DIFFERENT  SHAPES  AND  SCALES  —  SURFACE  ZONES  —  BUSY 
WORK  —  SKETCH-MAPS  —  OUDS  AND  ENDS  —  CURRENTS  —  REVIEW  CHARTS  —  VIEW 
OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY — PAPERS  AND  NEWS  —  PRESENT  RULERS  —  CHARTS 
FROM  CENSUS  REPORTS — GEOGRAPHICAL  SCRAP-BOOK — SOUBRIQUETS  OF  STATES 
—  GEOGRAPHICAL  COMPOSITIONS —  FORESTS  AND  DESERTS  —  UPHEAVALS  AND 
DEPRESSIONS  —  GEOGRAPHY  AND  DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES 

Comparative  Sizes. 

THE   size    of  the  water  compared  with    the    continents 
and  islands  is  easily  shown  to  small  children  by  such  a 
comparison   as    is   represented    in  Fig.  20. 
The  comparative  size  of  the  continents,  or 
grand  divisions  as  they  should  be  called,  is 


CONTINENTS 


WAT£7? 


Fig.  20.— Size  of  all  the  Continents  and  Islands 
Compared  with  area  of  the  water. 

Fig.  21.—  Continents 
forcibly  presented  to  the  eye,  by  a  simple       Compared  with  each 

drawing  such  as  is  given  in  Fig.  21. 

When  the  Americas  are  united,  they  are  about  the  same 
size  as  Asia.  J39 


140  METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Size  of  Other  Countries. 

We  have  very  inadequate  ideas  of  the  comparative  size  of 
other  countries.  To  help  correct  these  wrong  impressions, 
the  teacher  is  advised  to  enlarge  the  map  of  the  United 
States  given  in  Fig.  22,  and  represent  the  same  on  the 
blackboard,  or,  better,  as  a  chart  to  be  preserved  and  used 
year  after  year. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  Charles  F.  Adams, 
State  Normal  School,  Worcester,  Mass.,  for  the  idea.  By 
this  method,  old  and  young  can  remember  the  comparisons. 

Further  Comparisons  in  Area. 

Children  become  very  much  interested  in  making  these 
comparisons  in  area.  They  can  usually  discover  striking 
similarities  for  themselves,  and  delight  to  represent  them  on 
the  board  for  the  entertainment  of  their  school  friends. 
The  teacher  should  encourage  all  this  work,  as  it  creates  an 
interest  in  the  subject ;  and  these  little  map-pictures  are 
never  forgotten.  Further  suggestions  in  this  line  of  teaching 
are  given  in  Figs.  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  and  28. 

Comparative  Size  of  Mountains. 

Draw  upon  the  blackboard  a  horizontal  line.  Place  at 
the  extreme  left  a  small  arc  to  represent  the  height  of  the 
nearest  hill.  If  this  is  about  five  hundred  feet,  represent 
its  height  by  half  an  inch  in  the  curve  of  the  arc.  This 
will  make  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  every  thousand  feet.  Then 
represent  some  well-known  mountain  in  the  State,  or,  per- 
haps, the  highest  peak.  Let  the  pupils  calculate  with  you 
the  size  of  the  arc  to  represent  the  highest  point  of  land  in  the 


146 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 


grand  division  of  North  America ;  then  the  Andes,  finally 
the  Himalayas.  Represent  the  distances  in  miles,  instead 
of  feet,  as  more  easily  remembered,  and  better  understood. 


Fig.  27. 

Showing  the  number  of  States  equal 
in  area  to  France  or  Germany. 


Fig.  28. 

Showing  what  States 
equal  in  area  Eng- 
land, Belgium,  etc. 


If  theie  is  no  hill  near  for  comparison,  take  a  tall  church- 
spire  or  monument.    Begin  with  something  the  children  see. 


Fig.  29.  —  Comparative  Size  of  Mountains, 
To  be  enlarged,  and  drawn  on  blackboard. 

The  scale  when  complete  will  appear  on  the  blackboard 
as  it  does  in  Fig.  29. 

Comparative  Sizes  of  Cities. 

Suppose  you  are  teaching  in  some  city  like  Providence, 
containing  about  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  and  you 


SIZE  OF   CITIES 


147 


wish  to  convey  to  the  class  an  adequate  idea  of  the  size 
of  some  larger  cities.  Talk  to  them  about  the  city  in  which 
they  are  now  living.  Ask  them  to  look  up  the  population 
of  several  other  places,  a  list  of  which  you  write  upon  the 
board,  beginning  with,  — 

Providence,  about 100,000. 

New  Orleans,  about        .         .    •    .         .         .         .  200,000. 

Boston  (1887),  about 400,000. 

Chicago  (1887),  about 700,000. 

New  York,  about 1,200,000. 

Paris,  about 2,400,000. 

London,  about        .                  5,000,000. 


'  PROVIDE  NCI 


BOSTQH 

CHICAQOW 

NEW  YORK 
PARIS 

LONDON 


Fig.  30.  — Comparative  Size  in  Population  of  Various  Cities. 

Ask  the  class  to  take  large  sheets  of  paper  (foolscap), 
and  draw  a  vertical  line  at  the  left  along  a  blue-ruled  line 
across  the  width  of  the  paper.  Call  the  width  between  two 


148  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

blue-ruled  lines  equal  to  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants. 
When  the  scale  is  complete,  it  will  be  in  the  form  shown  in 
Fig.  30- 

Comparisons  of  Population 

may  also  be  shown  to  the  eye  by  maps 
as  in  •  Fig.  31,  where  London  and  its 
suburbs  are  shown  to  equal  in  the  num- 
ber of  their  inhabitants  all  New  England 
and  New  Jersey. 

\  J  Statistics 

Fig.  31. 
London  compared  in  pop-       Can    be     made    VeiT    attractive    to     pupils 

uiation  with  New  Eng-     by  the  aid  of  diagrams.      The    annual 

land  and  New  Jersey. 

expenditures  of  the  United  States, 
based  on  the  last  census,  may  be  represented  by  rectangles 
as  follows  :  — 


Unit,  $100,000,OOO. 


Tobacco,  $600,000,000. 

Or  it  can  be  made  more  effective  by  using  the  pyramid  of 
blocks,  Fig.  32.  The  children  will  be  interested  in  learning 
that  for  public  education  the  United  States  spent  $85,000,- 
ooo  :  for  liquor  and  tobacco  the  United  States  spent  $i,- 
500,000,000,  or  17^  times  as  much. 

Facts  given  to  the  Eye  by  Circles. 

A  very  easy  method  to  help  children  remember  common 
statistics  is  to  employ  the  circle  so  easily  drawn  upon  the 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  EYE 


149 


Fig.  32.—  Startling  Statistics, 


Fig.  33.  —Annual  Products  in  Manufacturing1  and  Agriculture 
Compared  in  Two  States. 


150  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

blackboard  by  pupil  or  teacher.  The  divisions  of  the  circle 
can  be  made  all  the  more  vivid  by  using  colored  crayons. 
A  few  facts  are  thus  given  in  Figs.  33,  34,  35,  36. 

Mails. 

A  report  of  the  foreign  mails  and  trans-Pacific  mails, 
taken  from  the  morning  paper,  such  as  is  given  below,  will 
afford  a  very  interesting  review  lesson. 

Let  each  child  in  turn  point  out  on  the  outline  map  the 
route  of  a  letter  in  going  from  Boston  to  Cuba,  Mexico, 
France,  the  Fiji  Islands,  China,  etc. 

Foreign  Mails. 

^^^  For  Cuba,  by  rail  to  Tampa,  Fla.,  and  thence  by  steamer  via 
Key  West,  Fla.,  close  at  this  office  daily  at  3  P.M. 

$i^  The  overland  mail  for  Mexico  now  closes  at  the  post-office, 
Boston,  at  5.30  P.M.  daily,  instead  of  7.30  P.M. 

For  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  via  Halifax  from  Boston,  Thursday, 
March  29,  at  6  P.M. 

For  Scotland  direct,  specially  addressed,  only  per  steamer  "  Ancho- 
ria,"  from  New  York,  Friday,  March  30,  at  5  P.M. 

For  Netherlands  via  Rotterdam,  specially  addressed,  only  per 
steamer  "  Rotterdam,"  from  New  York,  Friday,  March  30,  at  5  P.M. 

For  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  via 
Havre,  also  specially  addressed  for  other  European  countries,  per 
steamer  "  La  Bretagne  "  from  New  York,  Friday,  March  30,  at  5  P.M. 

For  Central  America  and  South  Pacific  ports,  except  Chili,  via 
Aspinwall,  also  specially  addressed  for  Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica, 
per  steamer  "  City  of  Para,"  from  New  York,  Friday,  March  30,  at 
7.30  P.M. 

For  Brazil,  Chili,  and  the  La  Plata  countries,  via  Rio  Janeiro,  per 
steamer  "  Procida  "  from  Baltimore,  Friday,  March  30,  at  3  P.M. 

For  Nova  Scotia,  via  Yarmouth,  per  steamer  from  Boston,  Friday, 
March  30,  at  9  A.M. 


Fig.  34.  — Comparative  Size  in  Area,  of  Different  Parts  of  the 
United  States. 


Fig.  35.  — Comparative  Size  of  the  Different  Grand  Divisions. 


Fig.  36.— Comparative  Strength  in  Number  of  the  Different 
Creeds  of  the  World. 


152  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

For  Europe,  including  specially  addressed  for  France,  Italy, 
Switzerland,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  via  Queenstown  and  Liverpool, 
per  steamer  "  Umbria"  from  New  York,  Friday,  March  30,  at  5  P.M. 

For  Curagoa  and  Venezuela,  per  steamer  "  Caracas,"  from  New 
York,  Friday,  March  30,  at  7.30  P.M. 

For  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  via  New  Orleans,  Saturday,  March  31, 
at  3  P.M. 

For  Halifax  N.S.,  and  St.  Pierre,  Miquelon,  via  Halifax,  per 
steamer  from  Boston,  Saturday,  March  31,  at  n  A.M. 

ft^**  Date  and  hour  given  are  those  of  closing  at  the  post-office, 
Boston. 

Trans-Pacific  Mails. 

For  Australia,  Fiji  Islands,  New  Zealand,  Samoan,  and  Sandwich 
Islands,  per  steamer  "  Mariposa,"  from  San  Francisco,  April  4.  Mail 
will  close  at  Boston  post-office  Friday,  March  30,  at  I  P.M. 

For  China  and  Japan  and  the  East  Indies  (except  British  India), 
per  steamer  "  Oceanic,"  from  San  Francisco.  Mail  will  close  at  the 
Boston  post-office  March  31,  at  5.30  P.M. 

For  British  Columbia,  via  Victoria,  per  ship  from  San  Francisco, 
about  April  6. 

For  British  Columbia,  via  Victoria,  per  steamer  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, about  April  13. 

For  Tahiti  and  Marquesas  Islands,  per  ship  .from  San  Francisco, 
about  April  30. 

For  Society  Islands,  per  ship  "City  of  Papeti,"  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, April  30. 

$f~  Letters  for  the  Pacific  steamers  should  be  deposited  in  the 
post-office,  Boston,  eight  or  nine  days  before  the  sailing  of  the 
steamers. 

Comparative  Shapes. 

Beginners  in  geography  will  be  greatly  interested  in  such 
comparisons  as  are  given  below  from  Monteittis  Manual  of 
Geography.  See  Fig.  37.  Let  the  children  discover  others, 
and  try  to  draw  them.  Some  are  very  easy  to  find  :  others 
are  easy  to  represent, 


COMPARATIVE  SHAPES 


T53 


Fig  37.— Shapes  of  Countries. 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Plant  Distribution. 

The  plants  useful  to  man  are  distributed  in  zones,  which 
may  be  thus  represented.  (In  lower  classes,  the  teacher  can 
give  the  pupils  all  the  facts,  and  let  them  learn  them  by 
copying  in  blank-books,  by  conversation  upon  the  same, 
and  by  bringing  specimens  of  as  many  as  possible,  which 
specimens  should  be  arranged  in  similar  order  upon  a  table, 
and  then  the  names  printed  on  outline  maps.) 


Zone. 

Latitude. 

Characteristic  Plants. 

Arctic  

66°  to  90° 

Mosses,  lichens   saxifrage 

Subarctic  .... 
Temperate  .... 

Warm  Temperate  . 
Tropical  

55°  to  60° 
45°  to  55° 

25°  to  45° 
o°  to  25° 

Northern  grains,  berries,  pines. 
Wheat   and   northern   grains,  or- 
chard fruits,  maples,  oaks,  etc. 
Wheat  and  tropical  grains,  olive, 
fig,  grape,  and  citron. 
Sugar     rice,    maize,    spices     and 

palms. 

Maps  on  Large  and  Small  Scales. 

Most  maps  of  a  particular  section  of  a  country  in  the 
common  text-book  are  drawn  on  a  scale  of  a  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  to  an  inch ;  while  the  grand  divisions  are  usually 
as  small  as  six  hundred  miles  to  the  inch,  or,  as  the  English 
always  say,  i  :  38,000,000,  which  means,  one  inch  or  one 
foot  on  the  map  represents  thirty-eight  million  inches  or 
feet  in  distance  in  the  country. 

Hence  such  maps  cannot  give  very  many  of  the  details 
of  a  country,  and  pupils  are  very  apt  to  get  wrong  impres- 
sions. 


MAPS  ON  DIFFERENT  SCALES 


The  difference  between  the  real  mouths  of  the  Po,  for 
instance,  and  the  common  representation  of  the  same,  is 
brought  out  by  contrast  in  Fig.  38. 


Fig.  38.  —  The  Mouth  of  the  Po 

As  it  is  seen  on  a  large  map,  and  as  it  is  represented  on  most  maps  in  text-books. 

Productions  in  Color. 

Pupils  like  to  work  in  color.  This  natural  liking  can  be 
turned  to  good  account  by  allowing  them  to  represent  by  a 
special  color  each  production  of  the  country,  or  the  deserts 
and  the  forests.  Some  pupils  will  use  a  dozen  colors  on  the 


156  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

map  of  the  United  States.  A  key  to  the  map  at  one  side 
explains  the  use  of  the  colors.  Colored  crayon-pencils 
answer  every  purpose  for  this  work. 

Chart  of  Comparatiye  Size  of  Rivers. 

In  the  People's  Family  Atlas  of  the  World,  pp.  10  and  n, 
will  be  found  the  comparative  length  of  the  important  rivers 
of  the  world,  illustrated,  and  drawn  to  scale.  Let  the 
teacher  begin  with  some  river  near  home,  seen  and  visited 
more  or  less  by  a  majority  of  the  pupils,  and  draw  this  river 
at  the  left  to  a  certain  scale ;  as,  for  instance,  one  inch  for 
every  ten  miles  or  for  every  hundred  miles.  Then  draw 
other  selected  rivers  in  different  countries  till  the  longest 
is  sketched. 

Chart  of  Animals  arranged  according  to  Climate, 

On  a  large  square  of  manilla-paper  four  feet  square,  draw 
a  circle  three  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter.  Divide  the  circle 
into  zone-belts.  Reproduce  the  picture  on  p.  22,  Warren's 
Primary  Geography,  or  in  the  People's  Family  Atlas,  by 
pasting  on  the  manilla-paper  animals  cut  out  of  paper  from 
the  newspapers,  or,  better,  from  Little  Folks'  Menagerie, 
published  by  McLoughlin  Brothers,  New  York,  and  sold  in 
all  toy-stores  for  ten  cents. 

Surface  Zones. 

Keith  Johnston  thus  contrasts  the  surface  zones  of  the 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  From  this  can  be 
made  a  very  interesting  series  of  exercises  in  review. 


SURFACE  ZONES 


NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 


SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 


(i)  The  Equatorial  Forest  Region. 

The  tropical  forests  of  Central  America,  of  Florida  and  the  West 
Indies;  the  "selvas"  of  the  Amazon  basin  and  of  Guiana;  the  forests 
of  Central  Africa,  of  Ceylon,  and  Southern  India,  of  Farther  India, 
the  East  India  Islaifds,  and  of  Northern  Australia. 

(2)  The  Tropical  Pasture  Lands. 


The  "llanos"  of  the  Orinoco 
in  South  America,  the  pasture- 
lands  east  and  west  of  Lake  Chad 
in  North  Africa,  and  the  Ganges 
basin  in  India. 


The  pasture-lands  of  the  Upper 
Parana  and  Paraguay  river  basins 
in  South  America,  the  grassy 
plains  of  the  Zambesi  in  Africa, 
the  "  Plains  of  Tromise  "  in  North 
Australia. 


(3)  The  Deserts. 


The  "great  basin  "  of  the  Salt 
Lake  in  North  America  and  the 
"  American  Desert ; "  the  Sahara 
of  North  Africa;  the  deserts  of 
Arabia  and  Persia;  the  "Gobi" 
and  the  "  Thur  "  deserts  in  Asia. 


The  deserts  of  the  "Gran  Cha- 
co "  and  the  "  Salinas "  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  in  South  Am- 
erica; the  Kalahari  Desert  in 
South  Africa  ;  and  the  great  inte- 
rior desert  of  Australia. 


(4)  The  Temperate  Pasture  Lands. 


The  treeless  "  prairies "  of 
North  America,  the  "  steppes  "  of 
South  Russia  and  of  Central  Asia, 
and  the  pasture-lands  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Mongolia. 


The  "  pampas  "  of  Patagonia, 
the  Argentine  Republic,  and  Bue- 
nos Ayres ;  the  grassy  uplands  of 


the  'north-east    of    Africa; 
downs  "  of  Australia. 


the 


(5)  The  Temperate  Forests. 


Forests  of  British  North  Amer- 
ica, from  Alaska  to  Canada  and 
Labrador ;  the  woods  of  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Russia ;  and  the  for- 
ests of  Siberia. 


The  forests  of  South-western 
Patagonia  and  of  Tierra  del  Fue- 
go,  of  Tasmania  and  New  Zea- 
land. 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


*     (6)  The  Barren  Tundra  Regions. 


The  "  barren  grounds "  and 
"  sterile  regions  "  of  North  Amer- 
ica, of  Iceland,  and  the  "Tun- 
dras "  of  Siberia. 


Kerguelen  Island,  in  the  South 
Indian  Ocean,  sterile  and  moss- 
covered. 


(7)  The  Icy  Polar  Regions.  * 
The  Arctic  region.  |       The  Antarctic  region. 

Rainfall  by  Contrasts. 

High  mountain  ranges  frequently  separate  moist  from  dry 
regions.  The  facts  given  below  should  be  explained  for 
each  particular  region. 


Moist. 
Annual  Average. 

Range  separating. 

Dry. 
Annual  Average. 

89  inches  in 
Astoria,  Ore. 

Rocky  Mountains. 

5  inches, 
interior  basin. 

41  inches, 
Centre  Texas. 

Rocky  Mountains. 

8  inches, 
Centre  New  Mexico. 

82  inches, 
Norway. 

Scandinavian  Mountains. 

20  inches, 
Sweden. 

144  inches, 
Guinea. 

Kong  Mountains. 

33  inches, 
Kuka. 

Very  moist, 
Ascencion 

Andes  Mountains. 

Very  dry, 
Atacama. 

(74  inches). 

Busy  Work  and  Reviews. 

If  the  teacher  will  draw,  in  white  crayon  upon  the  black- 
board, several  columns,  as  ruled  below,  and  write  the  head- 
ings in  red  crayon,  and  the  first  column  in  yellow,  leaving 


BUSY  WORK 


159 


the  other  columns  to  be  filled  in  by  the  pupils,  he  will 
furnish  a  very  interesting  exercise  for  geographical  busy 
work. 

Lakes. 


Name. 

Where. 

Inlet.                            Outlet. 

Huron 
George 

Mountain  Chains. 

Name.                          Where. 

Direction. 

Highest  Peak. 

Sierra  Nevada 

Mountain  Peaks  and  Volcanoes. 

Name. 

Country. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

Whitney,  Mt. 
Everest,  Mt. 
Cotopaxi,  Vol. 

Sounds,  Straits,  and  Channels. 

Name.                                   Waters  connected. 

Separates. 

Behring  Strait 
English  Channel 
Long  Island  Sound 
Etc. 

i6o 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 
Isthmuses. 


Name. 


What  connected. 


Waters  separated. 


Panama 
Etc. 


Islands. 


Name. 

Situation. 

Surrounded  by. 

Subject  to. 

Falkland 

Etc. 

Rivers. 


Name. 

Source. 

Direction. 

Flows  into. 

Nile 

Mississippi 

Capes,  Promontories,  and  Peninsulas. 


Name. 


Farewell 

St.  Roque 

North 

Lower  California 


Where. 


Projects  into. 


Gulfs,  Seas,  and  Bays. 


Name. 

Where. 

Connected  with. 

Connected  By. 

Baffin  Bay 
Mexico  Gulf 

„ 

Red  Sea 

BUSY  WORK  l6l 

The  distance  from  Chicago  to  San  Francisco  is  2,340 
miles.  Let  the  children  use  this  distance  on  the  map  of 
the  Old  World  as  one  would  a  pointer  on  the  dial  of  a  large 
clock.  Perhaps  they  will  be  surprised  to  find  where  the 
2,340  mile  circle  is  located. 

Ask  the  children  to  classify  the  following  plants  according 
to  their  uses  for  clothing,  food,  medicines,  fuel,  or  luxuries  : 
viz.,  cotton,  cinchona,  cloves,  flax,  mustard,  maple,  oak, 
poppy,  pepper,  pine,  rice,  tea,  wheat. 

For  a  home  lesson,  ask  the  class  to  find  out  plants  which 
grow  in  warm  countries,  in  hot  countries,  in  cold  countries, 
in  temperate  countries.  Then  those  which  are  usually  found 
in  dry,  moist,  or  wet  climates. 

Let  the  class  draw  meridians  southward  from  Washington 
and  Boston,  also  parallels  eastward,  and  notice  what  coun- 
tries will  be  reached. 

Let  the  teacher  at  noon  write  on  the  board  the  following 
questions  for  extra  credits  :  — 

Where  is  the  Golden  Gate  ?  Golden  Horn  ?  Iron  Gate  ? 

The  Red  Sea?  Yellow  Sea?  White  Sea?  Black  Sea? 
Dead  Sea? 

Is  the  Red  Sea  red?  the  Black  Sea  black?  the  Dead  Sea 
dead? 

Find  the  Blue  River ;  Yellow  River ;  Black  River  (in  one 
grand  division) .  The  Long  River ;  Muddy  River ;  Beautiful 
River  (in  another  grand  division) . 

What  different  kinds  of  workers  are  rendered  necessary  in 
order  that  a  person  may  ride  from  Boston  to  New  York  ? 
(Engineers,  conductors,  firemen,  brakemen,  ticket-agents, 
machinists,  miners,  etc.) 


l62 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 


Sketch-Maps. 

We  do  not  refer  now  to  the  common  outline  map,  but 
to  any  maps -which  are  sketched  in  a  quick  and  perhaps 
unfinished  manner,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  some  point 
in  the  reading  lesson,  some  battle-field  in  the  history,  or  the 
locality  of  some  event  just  referred  to  in  the  morning  paper. 
We  have  seen  a  class  aroused  from  indifference  to  the  keen- 
est interest  by  the  teacher  sketching,  ih  half  a  minute,  as 


\ 

\ 

^^* 

>;M.,.  ,-• 

v^u  ^ 

*••* 

4      l 

^  Fig.  40.  —  Sketch-Map  of 

Fig.  39.  —  Map  of  Flodden  Field.  Oceanica. 


rough  a  representation  of  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field  as  that 
given  in  Fig.  39. 

The  little  map  of  the  battle-ground  of  Gettsyburg,  given 
in  Barnes's  History,  drawn  upon  the  board  on  a  larger 
scale,  has  helped  many  boys  to  remember  that  decisive 
event. 

We  remember  once  seeing  excellent  sketch-maps  of  Africa 
drawn  on  the  blackboard  by  the  pupils  of  the  Worcester 
Normal  School,  in  one  and  a  half,  two,  and  two  and  a  half 
minutes.  All  normal-school  students  should  be  trained  to 
do  such  work  in  a  quick,  off-hand  manner. 


SKETCH-MAPS,  ETC.  163 

To  illustrate  still  further  our  meaning,  the  attention  is 
called  to  one  form  of  a  sketch-map  of  Oceanica,  which  any 
teacher  can  draw  upon  the  board  in  three  or  four  minutes. 

First,  draw  three  horizontal  lines  representing  the  equator 
and  tropics.  In  the  upper  left  hand  corner  sketch  the 
south-eastern  part  of  Asia.  (See  Fig.  40.)  Then,  to  save 
time,  draw  the  large  islands  as  rectangles,  and  add  a  few 
of  the  principal  groups  of  islands,  all  of  which  are  on  or 
near  the  three  horizontal  lines.  Following  the  German 
method,  the  class  can  name  these  islands  as  rapidly  as  they 
are  drawn ;  their  names  may  be  written  on  or  near  them, 
towns  located,  productions  and  exports  printed,  etc. 

The  one  chief  object  of  the  sketch-map  is  to  aid  the 
memory. 

Children  of  other  Climes. 

A  very  interesting  exercise  for  young  children  can  be 
made  by  a  talk  upon  the  child  Esquimau,  Hottentot,  or 
Indian.  Let  the  children  use  their  imaginations  freely ; 
encourage  them  to  ask  and  answer  questions,  using  ideas 
already  learned.  The  teacher  should  make  ample  use  of 
pictures,  specimens,  and  stories,  to  make  the  lesson  as  real 
as  possible.  It  is  not  difficult  to  get  illustrations  for  this 
purpose. 

Industries  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Draw  upon  the  board  a  large  outline  map  of  this  sea. 
Have  the  children  turn  to  the  best  map  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean to  be  found  in  the  text-book.  Explain  to  them  that  a 
very  small  fish,  called  the  tunny,  in  enormous  numbers, 
enters  this  inland  sea  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  through  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar ;  in  spring  passes  eastward  through  the 
entire  length  of  the  sea,  makes  the  tour  of  the  Black  Sea, 


164 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


and  returns  in  autumn  to  the  Atlantic,  making  a  journey  of 
fifty-six  hundred  miles.  Dolphins  and  other  fish  prey 
upon  them,  but  man  pursues  them  with  the  greatest 
destruction. 

In  the  bays  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Naples,  and  Provence,  the 
little  tunny  is  enticed  into  nets,  and  caught  by  the  million. 
Where  the  tunny  is  caught,  is  indicated  on  the  map  by  black 
lines.  (See  Fig.  41.)  Sardines  and  anchovies  are  next  in 
importance. 


Fig.  41.  — Industries  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Coral  is  found  most  abundantly  in  the  western  portion  of 
the  Mediterranean  at  great  depths.  The  best  places  for 
finding  it  are  indicated  by  a  broken  line. 

Sponges  are  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, at  a  depth  of  from  twelve  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet,  on  the  coasts  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor ;  those  of  a 
poorer  quality,  in  the  Gulf  of  Cabes.  They  are  gathered  by 
divers. 

The  annual  production  of  the  fisheries  in  this  sea  is  said 
to  be  ^3,000,000 ;  the  coral,  ^640,000 ;  the  sponges, 
^40,000. 


DISTANCES  SAVED  165 


Panama  Canal. 

A  very  interesting  general  review  exercise  for  upper  classes 
can  be  made  by  writing  on  the  board  the  names  of  the  ports 
in  the  "  Panama  Canal  "  selection  given  below,  and  the 
distances  given  in  the  first  and  second  column,  and  ask 
the  class  to  find  the  distance  saved  as  given  in  the  third 
column. 

Consider  briefly  the  importance  of  the  canal  for  the  commerce  of 
the  world  in  general.  The  following  table  shows,  in  round  numbers, 
the  distance  in  miles  saved  between  various  ports :  — 

Distance  by    Dist.  by  Pan-     Distance 
Names  of  ports.  Cape  Horn,      ama  Canal.         saved. 

London  or  Liverpool  to  San  Francisco,  16,900  8,200  8,700 

Havre  to  San  Francisco       .         .        .  16,100  7,900  8,200 

London  to  Sydney        ....  16,400  10,900  5>5OO 

Havre  to  Sydney          .        .        .         .16,100  10,600  5>5°° 

Bordeaux  or  Havre  to  Valparaiso       .  10,900  7>45o  3»45° 

London  to  Sandwich  Islands       .'       .  14,900  7,900  7,000 

New  York  to  Valparaiso     .        .         .  10,600  3,900  6,700 

New  York  to  Callao    ....  11,200  3,000  8,200 

New  York  to  Guayaquil      .         .         .  12,000  2,400  9,600 

New  York  to  San  Diego      .        .         .  15,400  3,700  11,700 

New  York  to  San  Francisco        .         .  15,900  4,200  11,700 

New  York  to  Vancouver     .         .        .  16,600  4,600  12,000 

Odds  and  Ends. 

In  many  of  the  recitations  in  geography,  a  pupil  or  the 
teacher  should  be  at  the  outline  map  or  blackboard  a  large 
part  of  the  time.  There  must  be  a  constant  appeal  to  the 
eye.  The  teacher  who  sits  continually,  generally  has  a  slug- 
gish class,  we  have  noticed. 


1 66  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Sometimes  ask  a  bright  pupil  to  represent  the  Mississippi 
River,  or  the  eastern  coast  of  South  America,  with  a  string 
on  the  desk. 

The  drawing  of  all  the  States  of  this  country,  or  learning 
their  boundaries,  is  about  as  profitable  a  way  of  spending 
time  as  to  learn  the  names  of  the  mountains  in  the 
moon. 

Geography  is  one  of  the  best  studies  for  cultivating  the 
IMAGINATION.  Teacher  and  pupils  should  take  imaginary 
journeys  about  once  a  month. 

Make  in  the  yard  or  on  the  roadside  a  rough  elevation  out 
of  sand  or  earth,  to  represent  the  surface  of  the  town  or  city 
or  county ;  also  to  represent  the  natural  divisions.  One  or 
two  children  can  help  profitably  in  the  work,  if  the  teacher 
has  the  concept  well  matured  in  her  mind. 

Explain  to  the  children  with  a  globe  how  a  telegram  dated 
Boston  might  be  received  in  San  Francisco  at  an  earlier  hour 
than  it  was  sent.  Also  the  advantage  the  New  York  and 
Boston  papers  have  in  receiving  news  over  the  London 
papers,  as  whatever  is  important  in  the  London  dailies  can 
be  cabled  here,  and  used  in  our  dailies,  without  costing  our 
papers  much  for  collecting  the  news. 

Paint  upon  the  floor  in  beginners'  classes  the  cardinal 
points  as  determined  before  the  children  with  the  help  of  a 
compass. 

Representations  of  valleys,  hills,  mountains,  lakes,  rivers, 
capes,  islands,  etc.,  can  be  easily  made  upon  a  board  with 
coarse  sawdust,  putty,  dry  sand,  or  moulders'  sand. 

Friday  night,  ask  the  children  to  learn  all  they  can  from 
father,  mother,  older  brothers  or  sisters,  books  or  maps, 
about  the  home  geography  of  the  town  or  city  or  county. 


RAIN  AND   CURRENTS  167 

The  next  Monday,  call  upon  volunteers  to  recite  what  has 
been  learned. 

Let  the  children  find  from  the  statistics  of  population  the 
number  of  cities  in  the  country  containing  fifty  thousand  or 
more  people,  and  arrange  them  in  order  of  size  or  locality. 

Ask  the  children  to  open  to  a  map  of  the  United  States, 
and  see  if  the  State  of  California  would  reach  from  Boston 
to  Charleston. 

\VIHD 


MOUNTAIN 


LAINDN^ 


RIVER 

Fig,  42.  —  From.  Ocean  to  Ocean. 
Illustration  in  Physical  Geography. 

When  the  teacher  is  giving  a  lesson  on  Rain,  to  young 
pupils,  it  will  help  them  to  remember  what  has  been  said,  if 
a  large  oval  be  drawn  on  the  board,  and  the  important  words 
used  be  placed  at  certain  points  around  the  oval,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  42. 

Currents. 

The  action  of  heat  and  cold  in  producing  the  oceanic 
currents  can  be  very  easily  shown  to  a  class  with  a  glass  tank 
three-fourths  full  of  water,  if  a  piece  of  ice  is  placed  at  one 
end,  and  the  heat  of  a  lamp  applied  below  the  tank  at  the 


i68 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


other  end.  (See  Fig.  43.)  If  a  little  sawdust  is  placed  in 
the  water,  the  currents  will  soon  be  seen  to  move  in  the 
direction  indicated  by  the  arrows.  A  long  tin  dish  or  a 
glass  sauce-dish  will  answer  all  the  requirements. 


Fig.  43.  —  Currents  Produced  by  Heat  and  Cold. 

Historical  Geography. 

1.  1300  B.  C.  —  The  world  consisted  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  and  its 
border-lands  (see  Keith  Johnston's  Geography,  p.  21). 

2.  300  B.  C.  —  The  world  has  grown  bigger;  it  now  embraces  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  its  border-lands  (see  Keith  Johnston's  Geog- 
raphy, p.  23). 

3.  800  A.  D.  —  The  Indian  Ocean  may  now  be  added  to  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  and  two  centres  are  made,  although  discovery  had  not 
encircled  the  Indian  Ocean  (see  K.  Johnston's  Geography,  p.  29). 

4.  1500  A.  D.  —  Besides  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean 
with  their  borders,  the  eastern  border  of  the  Atlantic  is  well  known  ' 
(see  K.  Johnston's  Geography,  p.  38). 

5.  1700  A.  D.  —  Now  the  known  world  is  found  about  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans  with  their  completed 
border-lands  (see  K.  Johnston's  Geography,  p.  56). 

6.  1888  A.  D.  —  Now  the  Pacific   Ocean  and  its  border-lands  are 
added  to  the  above,  and  the  known  world  embraces  almost  the  entire 
surface  of  the  globe  (see  K.  Johnston's  Geography,  p.  75.     Draw  six 
maps  of  these  six  worlds). 

It  is  interesting  to  remember,  that  in  many  respects  the 
known  world,  No.   i,  called   the   ^gean  Sea,  was  just  as 


ELEVATIONS  AND   REVIEW  CHARTS 


169 


large  as  No.  6,  called  the  Pacific  Ocean  :  i.  e.,  it  took 
as  long  to  go  from  one  side  of  it  to  the  other  side ;  it 
was  as  dangerous  and  as  difficult  to  cross. 

Representing  Elevations. 

Elevations  may  be  represented  on  the  blackboard  in 
different  colors,  or  by  using  a  variety  of  marks  as  in  Fig.  44. 

A  Review  Chart 

can  be  readily  made  on  paper  with  the  rubber  pen,  or  on 
the  board,  by  copying  some  such  set  of  topical  words  and 
phrases  as  the  following  :  — 

North  America.  —  i.  Position.  2.  Manitoba.  3.  Charleston. 
4.  Central  Plain.  5.  Sponges.  6.  Mount  Mitchell.  7.  Upernavik. 
8.  Indian.  9.  Pineapples.  10.  Japan  Current,  n.  The  Grand 
Canon.  12.  Musk-ox.  13.  Grazing  region.  14.  White-fish.  15. 
New  Orleans.  16.  Prairies.  17.  Pike's  Peak.  18.  Central  Belt  of 
climate.  19.  Mining  region.  20.  Sugar.  21.  City  of  Elms.  22. 
Exports  of  Boston.  23.  Saratoga.  24.  Scranton.  25.  Cotton.  26. 
Great  railroad  centre.  27.  Sandy  Hook.  28.  Seal.  29,  Denver. 
30.  Commerce.  31.  Characteristics. 

Or  the  longest  blackboard  in  the  room,  or  all  the  black- 
boards, may  be  ruled  in  a  dozen  columns  as  below :  — 


1 7o 


METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


ffoo-tooa  -rooo-acao  sooo-booo  OI/E-R  10,000 

Fig.  44.— A  Simple  Way  to  represent  Elevations. 


THE  MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY  171 

and  some  bright  pupil  be  placed  at  the  board  to  write  words 
descriptive  of  what  simple  statement  the  first  pupil  gives  in 
reference  to  position.  Two  or  three  pupils  may  be  called 
in  reference  to  surface.  The  beauty  of  this  review  exercise 
consists  in  its  snap  and  rapidity. 

View  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

If  a  person  in  June  were  stationed  in  a  fastened  balloon 
over  New  Orleans,  sufficiently  high  in    the    air,  he  would 


Fig.  45.— Sketch-Map  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 


have  a  fine  panoramic  view  of  the  United  States.  Directly 
north  would  stretch  out  the  beautiful  Mississippi  River  and 
valley,  to  the  great  lakes  in  the  distance.  [Teacher  sketches 
the  same  as  he  describes ;  or,  better,  have  a  pupil  sketch  at 
blackboard,  and  class  do  the  same  at  their  seats.]  On  each 
side  are  many  parallel  streams  constantly  pouring  their 
muddy  waters  into  the  main  and  central  channel. 


172 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


To  the  left  of  this  great  valley  or  plain,  rise  the  sharp 
peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  white  with  snow,  like  a  silver 
frame  to  an  oil  landscape-painting ;  to  the  right  are  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  rounded  and  black  with  forests, 
near  by  compact  in  three  parallel  ranges,  then  breaking  up 
into  separate  groups  such  as  the  Adirondacks,  Green,  and 
White  Mountains.  When  finished,  the  sketch  will  have  the 
appearance  indicated  in  Fig.  45. 


\ 


V 


\ 


Fig.  46.  —From  Last  Census  Report. 

Showing  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  United  States  who  live  in  wet  or  dry  climates. 

Papers  and  News. 

Bring  into  the  class  a  number  of  daily  papers,  same  issue, 
in  which  the  telegrams  of  importance  have  been  marked, 
and  pass  them  out  among  the  pupils  in  the  geography-class, 
asking  them  to  look  up  the  locality  and  importance  of  the 
places  mentioned.  A  lively  exercise  will  surely  follow. 

Appoint  a  committee  from  the  class  to  report  all  impor- 
tant news  items  each  Friday ;  the  class  to  locate  on  an 
outline-map  the  places  mentioned. 


RULERS   OF   DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES  173 

The  Present  Rulers  of  Several  Important  Countries. 

[Make  a  review  exercise  from  the  list.] 

1888. 

COUNTRY.  RULER. 

Argentine  Republic President  Celman. 

Austria-Hungary Emperor  Franz  Josef  I. 

Belgium King  Leopold  II.  """ 

Brazil Emperor  Dom  Pedro  II. 

Chili President  Balmaceda. 

China Emperor  Kwang  Su. 

Denmark King  Christian  IX.  '**"" 

France President  Carnot. 

Germany Emperor  William  II. 

Great  Britain Queen  Victoria.        

British  India       Viceroy  Lord  Lansdowne. 

Canada Gov.-Gen.  Lord  Stanley. 

Italy King  Humbert  I.    " 

Japan Mikado  Mutsu  Hi  to. 

Mexico President  Diaz. 

Netherlands King  William.     •*"*" 

Portugal King  Luis  I.     -^ 

Rome Pope  Leo  XIII. 

Russia Emperor  Alexander  III. 

Spain King  Alfonso  XIII.  (child). 

Sweden  and  Norway      ....  King  Oscar  II.     **~~ 

Switzerland President  Droz. 

Turkey Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  II. 

United  States President  Cleveland. 

Charts  from  Census  Reports. 

The  census  report  of  the  United  States  for  1880  contains 
many  interesting  tables  in  reference  to  the  industries,  popu- 
lation, and  habits  of  the  people. 

To  illustrate,  we  reproduce  two  tables  in  reference  to  the 
population.  In  Fig.  46  is  shown  how  the  population  is 


'74 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


distributed  in  reference  to  the  annual  average  rainfall.  The 
figures  at  the  top  give  the  amount  in  inches ;  those  at  the 
left,  the  millions  of  inhabitants.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that 
eight  million  people  live  where  the  downpour  reaches  about 
forty  inches  on  the  average  for  the  year.  Fig.  47  shows,  in 
a  similar  way,  that  much  the  larger  part  of  the  people  prefer 
to  live  where  the  average  temperature  ranges  from  forty- 
five  to  fifty  degrees  above  zero. 


* 


f 


\ 


\ 


Fig.  47.— From  Last  Census  Report. 

Showing  the  number  of  inhabitants  who  live  in  warm  or  cold  temperatures. 

The  Geographical  Scrap- Hook. 

To  paste  selections  in  a  blank-book,  takes  considerable 
time,  and  prevents  using  them  afterwards  individually.  It 
is  much  better  to  purchase  a  standard  letter-file  (fifty  cents), 
and  place  the  scraps  in  the  pockets  alphabetically.  With 
the  help  of  the  class  a  rich  collection  of  material  soon 
accumulates,  and  no  teacher  is  so  poor  that  he  cannot  soon 
own  a  valuable  geographical  encyclopaedia.  To  show  what 
is  meant,  a  few  selections  are  given  below,  taken  from  our 
own  pocket  scrap-book  :  — 


FROM   THE  SCRAP-BOOK  175 

"  In  Corea  the  women  are  kept  in  the  greatest  seclusion.  Every 
evening,  however,  at  a  certain  hour,  the  city  gates  of  the  towns  are 
closed  at  a  given  signal,  upon  which  all  men  are  bound  to  leave  the 
streets,  which  are  given  up  to  the  women  for  promenading  and  recrea- 
tion. It  is  deemed  a  great  offence  against  modesty  to  look  at  a 
woman  then  in  the  public  streets.'' 

"  In  the  Tyrol  they  have  a  pretty  custom  of  taking  special  notice 
of  grandma's  birthday.  Young  people,  of  course,  expect  many  happy 
returns  of  their  natal  day ;  but  the  old  can  have  only  a  few  more  at  the 
best,  so  the  object  is  to  make  these  few  just  as  sunshiny  as  possible. 
In  the  morning,  the  Tyrolese  children  gather  in  groups  under  grandma's 
window,  and  awaken  her  with  music  from  flutes  and  violins.  The 
house  is  decorated  with  garlands,  and  all  day  long  the  old  lady  sits  in 
state  in  a  high  chair  to  receive  the  simple  gifts  which  are  brought 
her.  On  each  one  is  pinned  some  little  message  of  love.  A  large 
cake,  from  which  grandma  cuts  a  slice  for  each  new-comer,  forms  a 
part  of  the  ceremony." 

"London  is  vast,  but  Paris  is  splendid.  London  is  a  city  of 
roads  ;  Paris,  a  city  of  streets.  London  is  a  growth ;  Paris  is  a  crea- 
tion. London  is  a  workingman  in  his  overalls  and  hob-nailed  shoes; 
Paris  is  a  lady  of  fashion  in  silk  and  jewels.  The  face  of  London  is 
an  earnest  face,  with  a  soul  behind  it,  —  a  face  full  of  character,  inten- 
tion, resolution.  The  face  of  Paris  wears  the  smile  of  one  who  drives 
dull  care  away;  there  are  wrinkles  on  it,  but  they  are  dexterously 
disguised  with  cosmetic  arts.  The  face  of  London  is  seamed  and 
scarred,  and  is  not  ashamed.  London,  like  its  name,  is  full  of  a  deep 
reverberation ;  Paris,  like  its  name,  is  a  flash.  Paris  is  a  bunch  of 
summer  flowers,  with  short  stems,  that  must  fade  and  perish  to-morrow ; 
London  is  a  basket  of  autumn-fruits  that  hold  within  matter  for 
future  ripening  and  usefulness." 

"  The  sugar-cane  belongs  to  the  family  of  grasses,  and,  when 
growing,  looks  not  unlike  our  Indian  corn.  It  is  raised  from  cuttings 
fifteen  or  twenty  inches  long,  taken  from  the  top  of  the  plant  just 
below  the  leaves.  The  remaining  part  is  then  cut  off  near  the  root. 
From  the  root  spring  a  number  of  shoots  called  ratoons.  These, 


176  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

with  the  cuttings,  furnish  the  plants  for  the  next  year's  crop.  The  part 
between  the  cuttings  and  the  root  is  filled  with  a  pith  that  contains 
the  juice  from  which  sugar  is  made.  The  sugar-cane  is  now  culti- 
vated in  almost  all  warm  climates;  but  in  Java,  Mauritius,  and  Cuba, 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  reaches  its  highest  degree  of  perfection, 
owing,  perhaps,  to  the  great  extent  of  the  cane-plantations." 

"Henry  C.  Rowe,  of  Connecticut,  has  eighteen  thousand  acres 
planted  to  oysters,  from  which  he  reaps  over  a  million  bushels  of 
oysters  in  a  year.  The  work  is  thus  carried  on  by  him  :  — 

"The  oyster- farmer,  having  secured  his  ground,  next  cuts  it  up 
into  smaller  lots,  in  order  to  till  it  systematically.  This  is  done,  of 
course,  by  buoys  in  deep  water,  and  by  stakes  in  shallow.  Oysters 
cast  their  spawn  at  various  times  between  March  and  November,  but 
mostly  in  July  and  August.  Each  female  contains  from  ten  to  sixty 
million  eggs.  Few  of  them,  proportionally,  mature.  The  young 
oysters  are  for  a  few  days  free  floaters,  and  then  they  are  ready  to  be 
attached  to  any  clean  substance  that  may  offer.  The  plan  has  been 
tried  in  the  vicinity  of  Groton,  in  the  Pequonnock  River,  of  thrusting 
down  small  trees,  —  white  birch  being  preferred,  —  letting  them  lean 
at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  sloping  with  the  current.  The  young 
oysters  set  on  these  very  readily.  They  are  harvested  when  mature 
by  the  simple  process  of  pulling  up  the  bushes,  and  stripping  off  their 
singular  fruit.  As  many  as  one  thousand  bushels  of  superior  oysters 
have  been  gathered  from  an  acre  in  a  single  season !  Oysters  will 
set  on  almost  any  object  that  they  come  in  contact  with.  Clean 
gravel  is  preferable  to  any  thing  else,  where  it  can  be  had.  Old,  dry 
shells  are  generally  used  for  the  purpose." 

"  In  countries  where  earthquakes  are  common,  it  is  said  that  ani- 
mals give  warning  of  the  coming  danger.  Some  minutes  before  the 
shock  is  felt,  oxen  and  cows  begin  to  bellow,  sheep  and  goats  bleat 
loudly,  and  dogs  howl.  Horses  in  the  stalls  leap  up  and  down,  try- 
ing to  break  their  halters,  while  those  on  the  road  stop  suddenly,  and 
snort  in  a  strange  way.  Rabbits  and  moles  have  been  seen  to  leave 
their  holes,  and  fishes  approach  the  shore.  When  the  great  earth- 
quake occurred  in  the  island  of  Ischia,  a  few  years  ago,  some  people 
who  were  asleep  were  enabled  to  save  their  lives  by  being  pulled  by 
their  dogs,  who  barked  wildly  just  before  the  shock  took  place." 


FROM   THE  SCRAP-BOOK  177 

"Bamboo.  —  Perhaps  nothing  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  put  to 
such  a  variety  of  uses  as  bamboo.  It  is  said  that  the  Chinese  use  it 
in  over  five  hundred  different  ways,  and  with  them  it  takes  the  place 
of  both  iron  and  steel.  The  farmer  builds  his  houses  and  fences  with 
it,  his  furniture  is  made  from  it,  while  the  tender  shoots  furnish  a 
delicious  food  for  his  table.  The  roots  are  carved  into  images;  the 
tapering  stalks  are  used  for  ribs  of  sails,  for  every  sort  of  frames, 
coops,  and  cages,  for  handles  and  ribs  of  umbrellas  and  fans ;  while 
the  leaves  are  sewed  into  rain-cloaks  and  thatches.  The  shavings 
are  good  for  stuffing  pillows.  Chop-sticks  for  eating,  the  pipe  for 
smoking,  the  broom  for  sweeping,  the  mattress  to  lie  upon,  the  book 
to  study  from,  the  skewer  to  pin  the  hair,  the  hat  to  screen  the  head, 
the  paper  to  write  on,  and  the  pencil  to  write  with,  are  a  few  of  the 
ways  in  which  a  Chinaman  uses  bamboo.  With  five  dollars,  he  can 
build  quite  a  decent  hut." 

"  Chinese  Opposites.  —  The  Chinese  mariner's  compass  points 
south ;  i.e.,  the  index  is  placed  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  needle. 
The  Chinese  shake  their  own  hands  when  they  meet.  The  men  wear 
skirts,  and  the  women  pants.  The  men  wear  their  hair  as  long  as  it 
will  grow ,  the  women  bind  theirs  up  as  snug  as  possible.  The  dress- 
makers are  men,  not  women.  The  spoken  language  is  never  written, 
and  the  written  language  is  never  spoken.  In  reading  a  book  the 
Chinaman  begins  at  the  end,  and  reads  backwards/'  All  notes  in 
the  book  appear  at  the  top  of  the  page  in  place  of  the  bottom,  as 
with  us.  White  is  the  mourning  color,  not  black.  Surnames  precede 
the  given  names.  Vessels  are  launched  sideways,  not  endways.  In 
mounting  a  horse,  the  Chinese  do  so  from  the  off  side.  At  dinner  we 
commence  the  meal  with  soup  and  fish :  they  reverse  the  order,  and 
begin  with  the  dessert.  Grown-up  men  fly  kites,  and  the  boys  look 
on.  Our  bridesmaids  are  young,  and  dress  in  white;  theirs  are  old 
women  clad  in  black."  —  Due  West,  by  BALLOU. 

Fancy  Names. 

Ask  the  children  to  learn  all  the  nicknames  for  cities  they 
can  find ;  such  as  Spindle  City,  Quaker  City,  Crescent  City, 
City  of  Churches,  City  of  Elms,  etc. 


i7S 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


Soubriquets  of  States. 

Make  an  exercise  from  the  following  facts  :  — 


STATES. 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 
Vermont    . 
Massachusetts   . 
Rhode  Island     . 
Connecticut 
New  York 
New  Jersey 
Pennsylvania 
Delaware  . 
Virginia     . 
West  Virginia    . 
North  Carolina 
South  Carolina . 
Georgia 
Florida 
Mississippi 
Louisiana  . 
Texas         ? 
Arkansas  . 
Tennessee . 
Kentucky  . 
Ohio  . 
Indiana 
Illinois 
Michigan   . 
Wisconsin. 
Iowa  . 
Minnesota. 
Kansas 
Colorado   . 
Nevada 
California  . 


SOUBRIQUETS. 

.  Pine-tree  State. 

.  Granite  State. 

.  Green-mountain  State. 

.  Old  Bay  State. 

.  Little  Rhody. 

.  Nutmeg  State. 

.  Empire  State. 

.  Jersey  Blue. 

.  Keystone  State. 

.  The  Diamond  State. 

.  Old  Dominion. 

.  Pan-handle  State. 

.  Tar  State. 

.  Palmetto  State. 

.  Empire  State  of  the  South. 

.  Peninsula  State. 

.  The  Bayou  State. 

.  Creole  State. 

.  The  Lone  Star  State, 

.  Bear  State. 

.  Big  Bend  State.  ' 

.  Corn  Cracker  State. 

.  Buckeye  State. 

.  Hoosier  State. 

.  Prairie  or  Sucker  State. 

.  Wolverine  or  Lake  State. 

.  Badger  State. 

.  Hawkeye  State. 

.  Gopher  State. 

.  Garden  of  the  West. 

,  Centennial  State. 

.  Sage  Hen  State. 

.  The  Golden  State. 


SOUBRIQUETS  OF  CITIES 


179 


Soubriquets  of  Cities. 


CITIES. 

Baltimore  . 

Boston 

Brussels 

Brooklyn    . 

Buffalo 

Chicago 

Cincinnati  . 

Detroit 

Indianapolis 

Leipsic 

Lowell 

Nashville    . 

New  Haven 

New  Orleans 

New  York  . 

Pittsburg    . 

Portland,  Me. 

Rome 

San  Francisco 

St.  Louis    . 

Venice 

Washington 


SOUBRIQUETS. 

Monumental  City. 

Hub  of  the  Universe. 

Little  Paris. 

City  of  Churches. 

Queen  City  of  the  Lakes. 

Garden  City. 

Queen  City. 

City  of  the  Straits.' 

Railroad  City. 

Town  of  the  Lime-Trees. 

City  of  Spindles. 

City  of  Rocks. 

City  of  Elms. 

Crescent  City. 

Empire  City. 

Smoky  City. 

Forest  City. 

Eternal  City. 

Frisco. 

Mound  City. 

Queen  City  of  the  World. 

City  of  Magnificent  Distances. 


Fig.  48.  —Important  Coal  Fields  of  the  United  States. 


i8o 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


'^Imwm^'-"^  ' 
Fig.  49.  — Map  of  Mauch  Chunk. 


Fig.  50.  — A  Falling  Roof. 


ILLUSTRATED  COMPOSITIONS 


181 


Geographical  Compositions. 

As  soon  as  the  class  begin  to  be  interested  in  geography, 
they  are  ready  to  express  their  new  ideas  in  writing.  The 
best  of  compositions  can  be  written  upon  some  interesting 
town,  like  Washington  or  Rome  ;  or  upon  some  discoverer, 
like  Stanley  or  Greely.  The  common  productions,  such 


Fig.  52.  — Pen- Picture  of  Mauch  Chunk. 

as  cotton,  wheat,  petroleum,  gold,  or  coal,  form  capital  sub- 
jects for  compositions.  Children  are  all  the  more  interested 
if  encouraged  to  illustrate  their  compositions  with  pen-and- 
ink  sketches,  and  make  it  seem  like  a  book.  The  writer 
has  in  his  possession  a  set  of  such  illustrated  compositions 
prepared  by  a  recent  class  in  his  room,  on  the  subject  of 
coai  A  few  of  the  pen-and-ink  pictures  are  reproduced 
in  Figs.  48-54. 


Fig-.  53.  — Another  Title-Page. 

• 
(Drawn  with  pen  by  Master  L.  A.  Frink,  Graduating  Class,  Lewis  School,  Boston.) 


FUN  IN  GEOGRAPHY  183 

Such  topics  as  the  following  are  profitable  for  composi- 
tions :  — 

Fisheries  in  Massachusetts.  Cotton  in  Mississippi.  Rice 
in  South  Carolina.  Salt  in  New  York.  Oysters  in  Mary- 
land. Silver  in  Nevada.  Coal  in  Pennsylvania.  Railroads 
in  New  England ;  in  the  West.  The  Indians ;  The  Esqui- 
maux; The  Negroes.  New-England  Weather.  Western 
Farming.  A  Letter  from  California  to  a  Cousin  in  Maine. 
A  Trip  to  Alaska.  Mining.  How  Shoes  are  made.  The 
Life  of  a  Linen  Collar.  The  Seal;  Grizzly  Bear;  Deer. 
Salmon- Fishing. 

A  Funny  Lesson  in  Geography. 

Children  enjoy  a  bit  of  fun  now  and  then.  They  will 
appreciate  the  reading  of  the  following  from  the  "  Railway 
Journal :  "  — 

"  Dear  teacher,  will  you  tell  me  what  the  inhabitants  of 
America  are  called  ?  " 

44  They  are  called  Americans,  my  boy." 

"  And  are  the  people  of  Mexico  called  Mexicones  ?  " 

"  No,  my  boy ;  they  are  called  Mexicans." 

"  Ah !  and  the  people  of  Greece,  for  instance,  are  called 
Greecycans  ?  " 

"  No,  my  boy;  they  are  called  Greeks." 

"  Then,  teacher,  are  the  people  of  Spain  called  Speaks?" 

"  No,  dear  boy ;  they  are  called  Spaniards." 

"  Indeed !  and  the  people  of  Portugal,  are  they  Portugards  ?" 

"  No,  my  boy;  they  are  called  Portuguese." 

"  Ah !  then  the  people  of  Germany  are  Germangeese  ? 

"  No,  my  boy ;  they  are  Germans." 

"Oh!  and  the  people  of  Norway,  are  they  Normans?" 

"  No,  my  boy  ;  they  are  Norwegians." 


184  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

"  And  the  people  of  Sweden,  are  they  Skowhegans  ?  " 
"  No,  dear  boy  ;  they  are  Swedes." 
"  And  are  the  people  of  Sardinia  Sardines  ?  " 
"  No,  my  boy ;  they  are  Sardinians." 
"  And  in  Japan  are  they  Japanians  ?  " 
"  No,  my  boy  ;  they  are  Japanese." 
"  And  in  Morocco,  are  they  Moroccoese  ?  " 
"  No,  my  boy  ;  they  are  Moors." 
"  And  are  the  people  of  Patagonia  Pats  ?  " 
"  No,  my  boy  ;  they  are  Patagonians." 
"And  in  Hindoostan,  are  they  called  Hindoostanians  ?  " 
"  No,  my  boy;  they  are  Hindoos." 
"And  in  Holland,  are  they  Holloos  ?  " 
"No,  my  boy ;  they  are  Dutch." 
"  And  in  Belgium  they  are  Belch  ?  " 
"  No,  dear  boy ;  they  are  Belgians." 
"  And  in  Poland  are  they  Polians  ? " 
"  No,  dear  boy;  they  are  Poles/' 
"  Oh,  yes  !  and  in  Russia  they  are  Rushes  ?  " 
"No,  no;  they  are  Russians.'' 
"  And  in  Wales,  they  are  Wallians  ?  " 
"  No,  indeed  ;  they  are  Welch." 
"  And  in  Scotland,  they  are  Sculch  ?  " 
"  Not  at  all ;  they  are  Scotch." 
"  And  in  Ireland,  they  are  Itch  ?  " 
"  No ;  they  are  Irish." 
"  And  in  France,  they  are  Fish  ?  " 
"No;  French." 

"  Oh  !  and  in  England,  they  are  Inch  ?  J 
"No  ;  they  are  English." 

"  And  are  the  people  of  Switzerland  called  Switch  ? " 
"  No  ;  they  are  Swiss." 

"Oh,  yes!  and  the  people  of  Sicily  are  Siss  —  or  are  they 
Sissys?" 


DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES  185 

"  They  are  Sicilians." 

"  And  in  Turkey,  are  they  Turkeyans  or  Turkeys  ?  " 
"  Neither  ;  they  are  Turks." 
<(  Oh  !  and  in  Italy,  they  are  Its  ?  " 
"  No  ;  they  are  Italians." 

"  And  the  people  of  Denmark,  dear  teacher  —  ?  " 
"  My  boy,  the  people  of  Denmark  may  go  to  —  Copenhagen. 
I  think  we  have  had  all  the  geography  we  need  for  one  day." 


Geography  and  Devotional  Exercises. 

If  the  teacher  make  his  selections  from  the  Bible,  remem- 
bering the  child  nature^his  class  will  be  deeply  interested  ; 
e.g.,  if  Africa  is  the  country  they  are  studying,  then  begin 
to  read  selections  in  the  last  part  of  Genesis  and  in  Exodus 
about  Joseph  and  Moses.  The  plagues  of  Egypt,  Exod. 
vii.-xii.,  are  usually  enjoyed  by  the  class.  If  Asia  is  the 
grand  division,  then  selections  from  the  first  part  of  Genesis 
should  be  made,  about  Noah  and  the  ark,  Abraham  and  the 
three  angels,  Sodom  and  Lot,  Abraham  and  Isaac,  Isaac's 
courtship,  Esau  and  Jacob,  Jacob  serving  for  Rachel,  Jacob 
meeting  Esau.  Joshua's  adventures  as  related  in  the  first 
part  of  Joshua  are  always  interesting.  Samson,  Daniel,  and 
Samuel  are  also  great  favorites.  The  girls  generally  enjoy 
such  characters  as  Ruth  and  Esther. 

If  a  map  of  the  world  hang  behind  the  desk,  the  teacher 
can  easily  add  a  word  of  geographical  explanation  which 
will  create  much  interest  in  the  subject.  We  recently  saw 
a  class  of  rough  boys  listening  with  the  most  intense  eager- 
ness for  ten  minutes  as  the  teacher  read,  making  about  ten 
words  of  geographical  comment,  the  story  of  Jacob  obtain- 
ing the  blessing  (Gen.  xxvii.). 


g-.  5 4. —  Full- Page  Illustration  from  Frink's  Composition  on  Coal. 


Fig.  55.— Belts  o, 


rests  and  Deserts. 


(UNI7ERSITT] 


03T 


UNIVERSITY 


UPHEAVALS          DEPRESS  ro/VS 

Fig.  56.  —  The  Upheavals  and  Def 


swns  in  Different  Parts  of  the  World. 


OP  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


CONTRASTED  BELTS  187 

Forests  and  Deserts. 

A  large  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  covered  by  one 
of  these  contrasted  belts,  depending  upon  the  amount  of 
moisture.  By  glancing  at  Fig.  55,  it  will  be  seen  at  once 
that  the  belts  of  desert  plains  are  on  or  near  the  tropics ; 
while  the  forest  belts  are  mostly  on  or  near  the  equator  and 
sixty  degrees  north  parallel. 

If  the  teacher  is  provided  with  an  oil-painted  outline 
map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projection,  he  can  readily 
reproduce  Fig.  55  before  the  class  in  contrasted  colors. 

Upheavals  and  Depressions. 

A  "  bit  of  geology  "  always  pleases  an  intelligent  class. 
Many  simple  facts  and  good  illustrations  will  be  found  in 
such  books  as  Shaler's  First  Book  in  Geology,  and  Dana's 
Geological  Story  Briefly  Told.  In  Fig.  56,  the  upheavals  and 
depressions  so  quietly  going  on  about  the  coast  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  and  on  the  western  side  of  South  America,  are 
plainly  indicated.  If  these  are  shown  on  the  blackboard 
with  colored  crayon,  and  briefly  explained  by  the  teacher, 
the  class  will  be  intensely  interested,  and  led  to  study  the 
matter  more  fully.  (For  facts,  consult  the  above  books  and 
Reclus'  Earth.} 


CHAPTER    X 

MODEL  LESSONS 


THE  teacher's  part,  then,  in  the  process  of  instruction,  is  that  of 
a  guide,  director,  or  superintendent  of   the  operation  by  which  the 

pupil  teaches  himself.  —  Payne. 

189 


BOOKS   FOR  CONSULTATION 


FRYE'S  GEOGRAPHY,  WITH  SAND  MODELLING. 

GEIKIE'S  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

GOODISON'S  ARTICLES  IN  POPULAR  EDUCATOR,  1887  AND  1888. 

PATRIDGE'S  QUINCY  METHODS. 

PEAVEY'S  MANUAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

NOTE.  —  Teachers  who  wish  to  study  model  lessons  for  lower  classes  will 
do  well  to  consult  the  books  mentioned  above. 

190 


CHAFFER  X 

MODEL   LESSONS 

PART   I -SURFACE   OF   NORTH   AMERICA 

OBJECT  OF  THE  RECITATION  —  PREPARATION  MADE  BY  PUPIL — PREPARATION  MADE 
BY  TEACHER  —  APPARATUS  USED  —  REVIEW  —  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  HIGHLANDS  — 
ADVANCED  LESSON  —  PLATEAUS  —  VALLEYS  —  DIFFERENT  MOUNTAINS  —  VISITING 
MOUNTAINS  —  SLOPES 

PART   II  — CLIMATE   OF   NORTH    AMERICA. 

OBJECT  OF  RECITATION,  ETC.  —  BELTS  OF  CLIMATE  —  CAUSES  AFFECTING  THE 
CLIMATE  —  FACTS  ABOUT  THE  ARCTIC  CLIMATE  —  CENTRAL  BELT — COMPARISONS 
—  FACTS  ABOUT  THE  TEMPERATE  CLIMATE  —  SHORT  DESCRIPTIONS 

PART  I 
RECITATION  IN  GEOGRAPHY,  IN  A  FIFTH-YEAR  CLASS 

Subject  — Surface  of  North  America 

Object  of  the  Recitation.  —  i.  A  review  of  previous  lesson.  2.  To 
ascertain  how  much  preparation  had  been  made  by  the  class  on  the 
advanced  part  of  the  lesson.  —  Plains  and  Eastern  highlands,  which  had 
been  assigned  as  a  home  lesson.  3.  To  show,  by  comparison  with  what 
was  taught  on  p.  263,  that  the  recitation  is  not  confined  to  just  what  was 
taught,  but  it  may  be  somewhat  elastic. 

Preparation  made  by  Pupils.  —  Study  of  notes  made  at  end  of  previous 
lesson,  when  many  facts,  not  in  the  text-books,  were  given  by  teacher. 
Examination  of  twenty  pictures  shown  by  solar  camera,  and  a  few  photo- 
graphs, and  several  pictures  in  'the  ordinary  geographies.  Reading 
numerous  books  from  library  in  preparation  for  reading  hour. 

191 


192  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Preparation  on  the  Part  of  the  Teacher.  —  Studying  raised  map, 
Guyot's  maps,  stereoscope  and  lantern  pictures  of  the  region.  The 
making  of  a  sand  map  the  night  before.  Examination  of  such  illus- 
trated books  as  "  North  America  "  by  Manning,  "  Rocky  Mountains  "  by 
Miss  Bird,  "Yosemite"  by  Kneeland,  "  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey" by  Hayden ;  reading  "Qn.  Horseback"  in  "Atlantic  Monthly," 
"  Rocky  Mountains"  by  Bird,  "The  Round  Trip"  by  Codman,  "From 
Fifth  Avenue  to  Alaska "  by  Ed.  Pierrepont,  "  Across  the  Continent '' 
by  Bowles.  Consulting  several  times  "  Mission  of  the  North-American 
People  "  by  Gilpin,  "  Glimpses  of  the  Earth  "  by  Blakiston,  Appleton's 
Cyclopaedia,  Lippincott's  Gazetteer,  maps,  etc. 

Apparatus  Used.  —  Globe,  blackboard,  outline  map  on  cloth  blackboard, 
raised  atlas,  sand  map,  putty  map,  charts,  Guyot's  large  wall  Physical 
Map  of  North  America,  Hughes's  Political  Map  of  same,  Warren's 
Political  and  Guyot's  Physical  Maps  in  geographies. 

THE   RECITATION 

(Written  from  a  report  made  by  a  pupil.  New  matter  brought  out  is 
printed  in  Italics.} 

I  — REVIEW 

Surface  in  General,  and  Rocky  Mountain  Highlands. 

Teacher.  Miss  Foss  may  point  out  on  the  globe  the  general 
trend  of  North  America.  (She  examines,  and  reports  "north 
and  south.") 

T.  How  does  North  America  compare  in  size  with  the 
other  grand  divisions  ?  Hands.  (There  are  forty  hands  raised, 
and  Master  Brooks  is  selected  to  answer.  He  comes  forward 
to  the  desk,  takes  up  a  pasteboard  outline  of  North  America, 
goes  to  the  comparative  chart  on  which  all  the  grand  divisions 
are  drawn  upon  the  same  scale,  and  places  his  outline  of  North 
America  over  several  of  the  other  grand  divisions  so  as  to 
answer  the  question.) 

T.  Tell  the  class  from  the  sand  map  what  you  learned 
yesterday  about  the  surface  of  North  America,  Miss  Hope. 

Miss  H.  The  surface  of  North  America  is  easily  divided 
into  two  highlands  and  two  plains.  Here  are  represented  the 


SEA  ALPS  193 

Western  Highlands  (pointing);  here,  the  Central  Plain.  The 
Western  Cordilleras  are  subdivided  into  the  Cascade  Range 
at  the  north,  the  largest  range,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  in 
California,  and  the  Sierra  Madre  in  Mexico.  The  plateau  is  — 

T.     That  will  do.     Very  good.     Well,  Miss  Forbes? 

Miss  Forbes.     I  think  she  made  a  mistake. 

T.     What  was  it  ? 

Miss  F.  She  omitted  to  say  that  the  Eastern  Cordilleras  is 
usually  called  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  differing  from  the 
Western  Cordilleras  in  being  higher,  and  having  only  one  name 
for  its  entire  length. 

T.  Very  good.  What  appropriate  name  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  Cascade  Range  north  of  Vancoiiver  Island? 

(After  a  pause  only  one  hand  is  raised.) 

T.     What  is  it,  Master  Pinkham  ? 

P.     The  Sea  Alps. 

T.     Well  done,  Pinkham.     Where  did  you  learn  that? 

P.     From  a  book  I  am  reading. 

T.  Class,  please  notice  the  advantage  of  reading  good 
books.  Will  the  next  please  describe  the  surface  of  North 
America,  from  Guyot's  Physical  Map  ? 

(Master  Ryan  takes  the  pointer,  and  repeats  what  had  been 
given  before,  only  he  used  the  physical  map  instead  of  the  sand 
map.) 

T.  Master  Riley,  please  read  from  this  book,  called  the 
"Essentials  of  Geography"  by  Fisher,  a  different  name  for 
what  Master  Ryan  called  the  Cordilleras. 

Master  Riley  reads  :  In  the  western  part  of  North  A  merica 
are  an  inner  t  ''id  an  outer  mountain  system,  walling  in  a  vast 
plateau. 

T.     Which  name  do  you  like  better  ? 

R.     Cordilleras. 

T.     Why  ? 

R.    Because  it  is  shorter. 


194  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

T.     How  many  prefer  Cordilleras  ? 

(The  class  is  divided  in  opinion^ 

T.     What  does  the  word  Cordilleras  mean  ? 

(No  one  knew  except  Miss  Hicks,  who  is  a  good  thinker.  She 
thought  it  meant  mountain,  because  it  was  applied  to  a  range 
of  mountains.  The  teacher  then  writes  the  word  on  the  board, 
using  yellow,  for  the  first  four  letters,  and  white  for  the  others?} 
This  is  a  Spanish  word,  and  meaning  —  Class  ?  (and  the 
teacher  points  to  the  first  four  letters,  —  Cord.) 

T.     Or?    Hands.     Miss  Hicks. 

Miss  H.     A  cord,  or  chain,  or  string. 

T.  Do  we  ever  use  any  of  those  English  words  for  a  moun- 
tain ?  Class. 

Cl.     Yes:  chain. 

T.  So  you  see  the  Spanish  word  means  the  same  as  the 
English  word.  Mr.  Fisher's  term  is  excellent.  You  can  use 
either. 

(This  short  diversion  increasetf  the  manifested  interest  in  the 
class.  The  eyes  began  to  brighten,  and  the  hands  to  be  raised 
with  greater  eagerness  to  indicate  a  desire  to  recite.) 

T.  Who  will  describe  the  Rocky- Mountain  Plateau  from 
the  sand  map? 

(About  thirty  hands  are  raised.  Miss  Forbes  is  selected. 
She  quickly  steps  to  the  sand-map,  and  takes  the  pointer.) 

Miss  F.  The  Rocky-Mountain  Plateau  lies  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Cordilleras.  A  person  in  travelling  over 
it  from  north  to  south  would  pass  various  sections  of  moun- 
tains, would  go  up  and  down  constantly ;  but  he  would  gradually 
rise  higher  and  higher  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  distance  from  north  to  south  is  five  thousand  miles. 
This  plateau  is  divided  into  seven  great  basins.  The  most 
northern  one  is  called  the  Yukon  Basin*.  The  land  here  [point- 
ing to  it]  averages  about  one  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  next  is  the  basin  of  the  Frazer  River ;  and  very 


ROCKY-MOUNTAIN  PLATEAU  195 

near  this  is  the  much  larger  Columbia  Basin,  where  the  land 
averages  four  thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  All  these  basins 
drain  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  widest  and  largest  of  these 
basins  is  the  next  one,  called  the  Interior  Basin.  The  rivers 
here  drain  toward  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  not  into  any  ocean. 
This*  is  about  six  thousand  feet  high.  South  of  this  is  the 
Colorado  Basin,  containing  the  Colorado  River,  the  Colorado 
Canon,  pictures  of  which  we  saw  yesterday.  This  slopes 
toward  the  Gulf  of  California.  Then  comes,  east  and  south  of 
the  last-named  basin,  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Grande,  draining  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  last  and  most  southern  of  these 
basins  is  that  of  Mexico.  It  is  also  the  smallest  and  highest, 
being  about  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
is,  like  Utah,  an  interior  basin. 

T.  Very  good.  Now,  who  will  represent  all  that  Miss 
Forbes  has  told  us  so  well,  upon  this  cloth  blackboard  outline  ? 
Miss  Maloney. 

(Miss  M.  steps  to  the  board  ;  and  in  a  few  moments  with 
colored  crayon  she  has  drawn  the  Cordilleras,  marked  off  and 
numbered  the  basins,  and  indicated  their  elevations.) 

T.     Any  criticisms  ?     Master  Riley. 

R.     She  didn't  indicate  the  basin  of  the  MacKenzie. 

T.     Miss  Maloney,  did  I  ask  you  to  indicate  that? 

Miss  M.     No,  sir. 

T.     Why  not  ? 

Miss  M.     Because  it  is  not  on  the  Rocky-Mountain  Plateau. 

(Still  Master  Riley  has  his  hand  up,  and  also  some  other 
pupils.) 

T.     Master  Riley,  have  you  any  other  criticisms  ? 

R.  Yes,  sir.  She  has  placed  the  basin  of  Mexico  too  far 
north. 

(Miss  M.  corrects  this  mistake  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  now 
wide-awake  class.) 


196  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Rocky-Mountain  Highlands. 

Teacher.  Miss  Forbes  spoke,  in  her  well-given  description  of 
the  Rocky- Mountain  Plateau,  in  reference  to  certain  pictures 
of  the  Colorado  Canon.  Tell  us  about  them.  (A  large  number 
of  hands  is  raised,  and  Master  Vincent  is  given  the  floor.) 

V.  You  showed  us  the  other  day,  with  the  solar  camera, 
four  pictures  of  the  canon.  One  was  called  the  Marble  Canon. 
In  this  picture  the  walls  of  rock  rise  very  steep  on  each  side  to 
the  height  of  four  thousand  feet,  and  seem  to  be  composed  of 
different  layers  of  stone,  which  you  said  were  of  various  colors. 
In  the  foreground  we  saw  a  very  large  Spanish  bayonet  and 
different  varieties  of  cactus. 

The  finest  picture  of  the  four  is  called  the  Grand  Canon, 
looking  east.  Here  the  river  runs  a  long  distance  in  almost  a 
straight  line  ;  and  so  great  are  the  distances,  that  the  river  looks 
like  a  silver  thread  at  the  bottom  of  the  canon.  Here  the  walls 
rise  almost  perpendicularly  seven  thousand  feet.  Many  side 
canons  are  noticeable,  and  places  looking  like  alcoves. 

T.  What  places  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  celebrated 
for  scenery?  Master  Hatch. 

//.  The  Colorado  Canon,  Yosemite  Valley  and  Big  Trees, 
and  the  National  Park. 

T.     Where  is  the  Yosemite  Valley?     Point  it  out. 

(Master  Hatch  steps  to  the  cloth  blackboard  outline,  and  indi- 
cates the  position  east  of  San  Francisco,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
range.) 

T.     What  would  you  see  in  this  valley,  if  you  visited  it? 

//.  I  should  see  a  long,  narrow  valley,  through  which  a  river 
flows :  the  sides  are  very  steep,  rising  in  some  places  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  height  of  three  thousand  feet.  There  are 
several  waterfalls,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  being  the 
Yosemite  Falls. 

T.     Have  you  seen  pictures  of  these  falls  ? 


GROVES   AND  GEYSERS  197 

H.  Yes,  sir.  There  is  a  photograph  of  these  fells  hanging 
on  the  wall  of  the  room,  near  my  seat. 

T.     Tell  us  about  the  big  trees,  Miss  Dary. 

Miss  D.  There  are  two  groves  of  these  trees,  called  the 
Calaveras  Grove  and  the  Mariposa  Grove.  They  are  both 
situated  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  not  far  from  the  Yosemite 
Valley.  One  grove  has  over  a  thousand  trees  in  it.  Some  of 
the  largest  are  thirty  feet  in  diameter  and  over  three  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high.  The  bark  is  over  a  foot  in  thickness. 
Bunker-Hill  Monument  could  be  placed  inside  such  a  tree,  and 
it  would  re'ach  only  two-thirds  of  the  way  to  the  top. 

T.  What  pictures  give  you  the  best  idea  of  the  size  of  these 
trees  ? 

Miss  D.  The  one  representing  a  coach  driving  through  the 
trunk  of  the  tree. 

T.  What  would  you  see  if  you  travelled  in  the  National 
Park? 

//.     Geysers  and  hot  springs. 

T.  How  do  you  know  you  would  ?  You  have  never  trav- 
elled there,  have  you  ? 

H.  No;  but  I  saw  the  pictures  you  showed  of  the  park, 
and  in  them  were  many  pictures  of  geysers  and  hot  springs. 
One  geyser  was  called  "  Old  Faithful." 

T.  That  will  do.  What  other  pictures  have  you  seen  ? 
Hands. 

(Hands  are  shown  from  nearly  every  part  of  the  class.  Miss 
Adams  is  vequested  to  reply.) 

Miss  A.     I  saw  a  picture  of  Pike's  Peak  and  Long's  Peak. 

T.     What  did  I  tell  you  about  them  ? 

Miss  A.  You  said  Major  Pike,  after  whom  the  peak  was 
named,  tried  to  climb  it  in  1803,  but  failed.  He  said,  "Nothing 
but  a  bird  could  reach  its  summit."  Now  ladies,  and  even 
children,  ride  on  horseback  to  the  top.  The  United-States 
Signal  Bureau  has  a  station  there,  and  men  stay  on  the  mountain 
all  the  year  round. 


198  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

T.     Did  I  say  any  thing  about  Long's  Peak  ? 

(Miss  Adams  hesitates,  and  hands  are  raised  with  great 
eagerness  by  nearly  every  pupil.) 

T.     Well,  Master  Langdon. 

L.  You  read  to  us  about  Miss  Bird  ascending  the  mountain 
with  "  Mountain  Jim." 

T.     Did /read  it? 

L.     No,  sir.     Miss  Foss  read  it  from  your  book. 

T.  In  these  pictures,  do  you  remember  how  the  trees  ap- 
peared, Miss  Foss  ? 

Miss  Foss.  They  seemed  to  stand  alone  in  clumps,  instead 
of  close  together  as  in  Massachusetts. 

T.  How  high  are  the  peaks  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  ? 
Master  Peters. 

P.  The  two  highest  peaks  are  the  volcanoes  Mount  St.  Elias 
in  Alaska,  and  Popocatapetl  in  Mexico,  both  of  which  are  about 
eighteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Pike's  Peak 
and  Long's  Peak  are  about  fourteen  thousand  feet. 

T.  The  children  of  Mexico  always  call  the  mountain 
"  Popo." 

From  the  chart  of  comparative  heights,  show  how  high 
eighteen  thousand  feet  is. 

(Peters  places  before  the  class  the  above  chart,  and  shows  that 
Mount  St.  Elias  is  three  times  as  high  as  Mount  Washington, 
which  has  been  seen  by  several  pupils,  and  eighteen  times  as 
high  as  any  hills  near  the  school?) 

T.     What  is  peculiar  about  the  highest  peaks  ? 

Class.  They  stand  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  chain. 

T.     Are  there  glaciers  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain  ? 

Class.     Yes. 

T.     Where  ? 

Class.     In  Alaska. 

T.    Well,  Master  Golden. 


HIGHLANDS  AND   PLAINS  199 

G.  I  read  the  other  day  in  the  supplement  to  the  Boston 
"Traveller"  that  on  Mount  Tacomas,  Washington  7^erritory,a 
large  glacier  has  just  been  discovered,  equal  in  size  and  beauty 
to  those  seen  in  Switzerland. 

T.  Very  good,  Golden.  I  saw  that  account  the  other  day, 
and  was  about  to  mention  it. 

Railroads  and  steamers  now  connect  this  mountain  with 
Portland  and  all  the  country,  so  we  need  no  longer  cross  the 
Atlantic  in  order  to  enjoy  the  view  of  a  river  of  ice.  Master 
Vincent  must  enclose  that  glacier  in  his  putty  map. 

II— ADVANCED   LESSON 

T.  We  have  lingered  too  long,  I  see,  on  this  part  of  the 
lesson,  and  must  proceed  immediately  to  the  home  lesson,  the 
Atlantic  Highlands  and  the  Plains  of  North  America. 

Miss  Porter,  please  step  to  the  board,  and  indicate  by  two  lines 
the  general  direction  of  the  two  highlands.  (Miss  Porter  has 
not  thought  of  that,  but  bravely  goes  to  the  indicated  board, 
takes  the  crayon,  and,  after  thinking  a  few  moments,  draws  two 
lines  in  the  right  direction.) 

T.  Those  who  approve,  raise  their  hands.  (The  class  are 
satisfied.) 

How  do  the  mountains  of  North  America  compare  with 
those  of  South  America,  Miss  Doyle? 

D.  They  run  in  the  same  direction,  but  those  in  South 
America  are  higher. 

T.     With  those  in  Europe,  Corcoran? 

C.     The  mountains  in  Europe  run  mostly  from  west  to  east. 

71  What  name  does  Guyot  give  to  these  Atlantic  high- 
lands ?  Class. 

C.     Appalachian. 

71     Describe  their  position,  Master  Wood. 

W.     Near  the  Atlantic  and  — 

T.     Miss  McClellan. 


200  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

M.  The  Appalachian  Highlands  are  situated  between  the 
Central  Plain  and  the  Atlantic  Plain,  and  run  parallel  to  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

T.     Are  they  similar  in  all  parts  ?     Class. 

C.     No. 

T.     What  is  peculiar  about  the  southern  half,  Miss  Guierrier  ? 

G>     There  are  several  parallel  ranges  in  this  part. 

T.  What  different  arrangement  did  you  notice  in  reference 
to  the  northern  half? 

G.     The  mountains  seem  to  be  in  groups. 

71  Yes,  or  detached,  you  might  say.  How  many  noticed, 
in  studying  this  subject  last  night,  that  there  are  noted  valleys 
between  these  parallel  ranges  in  the  southern  part?  (Only  a 
few  hands  are  raised,  showing  that  the  question  went  beyond 
the  observation  of  most  in  the  class.) 

You  may  open  your  geographies,  p.  37,  and  see  how  many 
valleys  you  can  discover. 

(The  class  do  so,  and  soon  hands  are  raised  by  pupils  eager 
to  tell  what  they  have  discovered.) 

T.     Master  Batcheldor  ? 

B.  There  is  a  valley  between  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany 
.  Mountains,  in  which  the  Holston  River  flows. 

T.     That  you  can  call  the  Valley  of  East  Tennessee. 

B.  Farther  north  there  is  a  valley  between  the  Alleghany 
and  the  Blue  Ridge,  through  which  the  Shenandoah  River  flows. 

71     Yes  ;  and  you  can  call  it  what  ? 

B.     Valley  of  the  Shenandoah  ? 

71     I  asked  you  a  question.     Please  answer  it. 

B.    Valley  of  the  Shenandoah. 

71  The  land  between  the  Alleghany  and  Blue  Ridge  is  some- 
times called  the  "  Great  Valley.'1'1  Do  you  find  any  more  ? 

B.  The  Hudson  Valley  in  New  York. 

T.     Has  any  one  found  another  ?     Master  Corcoran. 

C.  The  Mohawk  Valley. 


VALLEYS   AND   MOUNTAINS  2OI 

T.  Yes,  that  would  do,  perhaps;  but  notice,  it  runs  at  right 
angles  to  the  other  valleys,  and  it  is  much  smaller.  It  is  men- 
tioned more  frequently  in  what  study  ? 

C.     In  history. 

T.     What  persons  were  often  seen  there  then? 

C.     Indians. 

T.  What  modern  highway  passes  through  it?  (Master  Cor- 
coran does  not  read  the  papers,  and  so  has  not  heard.  But 
several  boys  are  so  anxious  to  tell,  they  leave  their  seats, 
and  come  with  uplifted  hands  towards  the  teacher,  who  is  stand- 
ing in  one  corner  of  the  room.  He  selects  Master  Vincent,  the 
smallest,  to  reply.) 

V.     New  York  Central  Railroad. 

(This  does  not  satisfy  some  of  the  others,  who  prefer  the  Erie 
Cana/j  and  the  teacher  is  obliged  to  tell  them  that  both  answers 
are  correct.) 

T.  There  is  another  noted  valley  in  Pennsylvania.  Who 
will  find  it?  (Several  are  mentioned,  such  as  the  Susquehanna 
and  Juniata  Valleys ;  but  these  do  not  satisfy,  and  the  teacher 
adds  the  Cumberland  Valley.} 

Begin  at  the  southern  part  of  the  highlands,  and  name  in  order 
the  different  ranges  and  groups  of  mountains.  Miss  Wallis,  you 
may  locate  them  at  the  same  time  on  this  outline  map.  (Miss 
Wallis  points  out  and  locates  as  follows  : ) 

Cumberland  Mountains  in  Tennessee,  Alleghany  in  Virginia, 
Blue  Ridge  in  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  Catskill  and  Adiron- 
dack in  New  York,  Hoosacin  Massachusetts,  Green  in  Vermont, 
White  in  New  Hampshire,  and —  (A  score  of  hands  are  raised, 
and  half  a  dozen  crowd  about  the  desk,  eager  for  the  opportunity 
to  supplement  deficiencies  in  Miss  Wallis's  recitation.  The 
teacher  chooses  Master  CVBrion.) 

Master  O.  She  omitted  the  mountains  in  Maine,  and  the 
Wotchish  in  Canada,  and  the  Taconic  between  Massachusetts 
and  New  York. 


2O2  METHODS   AND   AIDS   TN  GEOGRAPHY 

(Master  O'Brion  sits  down  feeling  well  satisfied,  and  wonders 
why  so  many  hands  are  still  eagerly  raised.) 

F.     What  else,  Miss  Lowe? 

Miss  L.  Miss  Wallis  omitted  to  say  that  the  Cumberland 
separate  Virginia  and  Kentucky;  that  the  Alleghany  separate 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  and  are  found  in  West  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania. 

7~.     Master  Wood. 

Master  W.  How  can  the  Alleghany  separate  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia,  and  then  be  found  in  West  Virginia  also? 

T.     Miss  Lowe,  defend  your  statement. 

Miss  L.  Why,  the  Alleghany  Mountains  consist  of  three 
or  more  parallel  ranges.  The  middle  range  is  on  the  State 
line,  and  the  western  range  is  in  West  Virginia.  Farther  north 
the  line  separating  the  States  runs  farther  east,  and  nearly  the 
whole  range  is  in  West  Virginia. 

T.  Master  Wood,  do  you  see  the  advantage  of  forming  a 
perfect  mental  picture  of  the  map  ? 

Master  Wood  (very  quietly).     Yes,  sir. 

T.  Miss  Long  still  has  her  hand  up,  and  she  is  asked  to 
speak. 

.Miss  L.     Miss  Wallis  did  not  speak  of  the  peaks. 

Miss  Wallis.     I  was  not  asked  to  do  that,  but  I  know  them. 

T.  Miss  Wallis  was  not  expected  to  speak  of  them.  Miss 
Long  may  tell  us  about  the  important  peaks. 

(Miss  Long  is  not  prepared  for  this  sudden  call,  and  makes  a 
poor  recitation.  The  teacher  then  called  on  Master  Edmunds.) 

Master  E.  Mount  Washington,  the  highest  peak  in  the 
White  Mountains,  is  the  best  known  of  any  of  the  peaks, 
because  it  is  so  frequently  visited.  I  went  to  the  top  of  this 
mountain  last  summer  with  my  father.  We  left  Boston  at  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  reached  the  foot  of  the  mountain 
about  one  o'clock.  In  about  an  hour  we  were  at  the  Summit 
House,  on  top  of  Mount  Washington.  The  day  was  very  fine, 


PERSONAL  VISITS  TO   MOUNTAINS  203 

and  we  could  see  a  long  distance.  I  enjoyed  very  much  the 
two  hours  spent  on  the  summit.  We  ate  our  luncheon  on 
the  rocks  looking  down  towards  the  Glen  House,  which 
appeared  very  small  and  directly  below  us.  At  three  o'clock 
we  took  the  train  to  descend.  Reached  Boston  about  ten 
o'clock  in  the  evening. 

T.  Very  good.  I  like  to  hear  of  these  personal  travels. 
How  many  in  the  class  ever  visited  the  top  of  Mount  Washing- 
ton ?  (Six  boys  and  two  girls  raise  their  hands.)  How  many 
have  ever  seen  the  mountain  ?  (Fifteen  pupils  respond.) 

(Miss  Gage  gives  her  experience  of  waiting  a  week  at  the 
Fabyan  House  for  a  good  day  in  which  to  make  the  ascent. 
Master  Parker  was  at  North  Conway  last  summer  when  the 
Appalachian  Club  stopped  there,  and  he  wanted  to  go  with 
them  on  some  of  their  excursions,  but  his  father  would  not  let 
him.  He  saw  some  lady  teachers -who  were  members  of  the 
club  and  climbed  the  high  mountains,  and  a  little  girl  only  four- 
teen years  old,  the  daughter  of  a  professor  in  New  York,  went 
everywhere  her  father  did,  and  took  all  the  hard  tramps. 

Several  other  accounts  were  given  about  Mount  Washington. 
Miss  Perry  brought  about  twenty  stereoscopic  pictures  and  her 
stereoscope,  which  were  passed  round. 

Several  boys  had  been  to  the  top  of  Mount  Mansfield ;  one 
had  spent  a  summer  near  Mount  Monadnock  in  Jaffrey,  N.H., 
etc.,  etc.) 

T.  Master  Jenks  may  tell  us  about  the  peaks  in  the  Black 
Mountains  now. 

Master  J.  Several  peaks  among  the  Black  Mountains  are 
higher  than  Mount  Washington,  such  as  Mitchell's  and  Cling- 
man's.  According  to  our  geography,  the  latter  is  about  four 
hundred  feet  higher  than  Washington.  This  peak  was  named 
after  Gen.  Clingman,  who  measured  several  mountain-peaks 
among  the  Balsams,  Smokies,  and  Blacks  in  North  Carolina. 
Mitchell's  Peak  was  named  after  Professor  Mitchell  of  the 


204  METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

State  University,  who  made  barometrical  measurements  of  these 
mountains,  and  was  the  first  to  announce  their  superior  height 
to  the  White  Mountains.  In  the  summer  of  1857  he  lost  his 
life  by  falling  down  a  perpendicular  precipice,  while  crossing 
the  Black  range.  He  is  now  buried  on  the  top  of  the  mountain 
which  bears  his  name. 

My  father  has  spent  several  summers  in  this  region.  He 
says  there  is  a  good  deal  of  timber  there,  much  of  it  very 
valuable,  the  trees  extending  to  the  summits  of  the  mountains. 
The  fishing  and  hunting  are  excellent.  I  have  an  older  brother 
who  is  hunting  and  camping  out  among  these  mountains  now. 
My  father  brought  home  from  North  Carolina  many  specimens 
of  valuable  gems.  He  also  found  there  a  large  emery-mine. 

T.  Very  good.  It  is  said  that  fifty-seven  peaks  in  North 
Carolina  are  over  six  thousand  feet  in  height.  The  Blue  Ridge 
is  the  water-shed  of  this  system,  as  no  stream  severs  it. 
According  to  geology,  as  set  forth  in  Shaler's  First  Book,  on 
the  desk,  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina  were  the  first  lifted 
above  the  sea,  so  they  are  the  oldest;  hence  one  high  peak  is 
appropriately  called  the  "  Grandfather."  (See  "  Heart  of  the 
Alleghanies,"  p.  261.)  There  is  a  section  of  North  Carolina 
situated  in  Macon  County,  in  the  south-western  part  of  the 
State,  which  is  an  elevated  plateau  over  four  thousand  feet  high. 
Owing  to  its  altitude,  nearness  to  the  ocean  and  Gulf  Stream, 
and  the  great  abundance  of  vegetable  life  and  pure  moving 
water,  it  is  rapidly  becoming  known  as  a  health  resort.  Per- 
haps in  the  future  it  will  be  visited  more  than  the  White 
Mountains  for  this  purpose. 

What  have  I  just  told  you  ? 

Miss  Webster  repeats  it  with  commendable  accuracy. 

T.  Those  who  have  lived  there  all  their  lives  thus  describe 
this  country :  — 

"The  entire  region  is  mantled  with  forests  to  the  summit  of 
every  peak ;  the  valleys  are  cleared,  and  inhabited  by  a  happy, 


SLOPES  205 

healthy,  and  hospitable  people.  It  is  rich  in  picturesque  scenery, 
romantic  rivers,  luxuriant  forests,  majestic  mountain  heights, 
valleys  of  exquisite  beauty,  quaint  villages,  cliffs,  and  waterfalls. 
It  is  rich  in  a  life-giving  climate,  brilliant  skies,  fertile  lands, 
pastured  steeps,  and  timber  and  mineral  wealth."  l 

After  two  boys  had  recited  the  gist  of  the  above,  the  teacher 
said:  I  made  no  mistake  in  calling  on  Master  Jenks,  you  see, 
class.  I  hope  every  one  of  you  will  be  as  ready  as  he  to  learn 
various  facts  from  your  parents,  uncles,  and  aunts.  The  next 
may  talk  about  the  Central  Plain. 

Miss  Atwood.  According  to  Guyot,  the  eastern  or  main 
slope  of  North  America  descends  gradually  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Atlantic,  interrupted  only  by  the  Appalachian 
system,  or  secondary  highlands.  The  long  interior  slope  be- 
tween these  two  highlands  is  called,  very  properly,  the  Central 
Plain.  As  shown  on  this  sand-relief  map,  it  extends  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  bordered  on  each  side  by 
the  two  highlands.  It  is  triangular  in  shape,  narrow  at  the 
south,  and  very  broad  at  the  north.  It  is  divided  into  two 
slopes  by  the  height  of  land  just  north  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
These  slopes  are  very  gradual. 

T.     What  slopes  ? 

Miss  A.  The  slope  towards  the  north,  the  one  towards  the 
south. 

T.     Master  Jones. 

y.  The  one  towards  the  west  is  very  gradual  also.  I  was 
talking  with  a  neighbor  who  went  to  Denver  last  summer,  and 
he  said  the  ascent  was  not  noticed  at  all  as  you  rode  along 
through  Kansas  and  Colorado. 

T.     How  high  is  Denver  ? 

Master  Jones.     I  think,  about  five  thousand  feet. 

7\     Who  knows  how  high  it  is  ? 

Miss  Thomas.  The  Gazetteer  says  it  is  fifty-two  hundred 
feet  above  the  sea. 

1  Zeigler's  Heart  of  the  Alleghanies,  p.  12. 


206  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

T.  How  does  the  approach  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  this 
point  differ  from  the  approach  to  the  White  Mountains?  (Sev- 
eral incorrect  answers  are  given.)  What  can  you  see  from 
Denver? 

Class.     The  two  lofty  peaks,  Long's  Peak  and  Pike's  Peak. 

T.     What  does  that  show  ? 

Master  Mulligan.     It  shows  a  clear  atmosphere. 

T.  Yes.  If  you  remember  the  solar-camera  pictures,  or  if 
you  have  ever  seen  stereoscopic  pictures  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains near  Denver,  you  can  see  in  these  pictures,  by  looking 
carefully,  that  the  great  western  slope  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
continues  to  the  very  foot  of  these  lofty  mountains,  without  the 
interruption  of  any  outflanking  hills.  The  Black  Hills  of  Dakota 
are  an  exception  to  this  statement. 

How  does  the  gradual  slope  affect  commerce  ? 

Master  Ryan.     Makes  the  rivers  large. 

T.     Not  necessarily. 

Master  Hatch.  Prevents  cascades,  and  so  makes  them 
navigable. 

T.  Yes.  One  other  point.  (After  several  thoughtful  replies 
have  been  given,  the  teacher  speaks  of  the  many  rivers  flowing 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  parallel  to  one  another.) 

7\  What  advantages  do  the  farmers  living  in  this  country 
have  over  those  in  New  England  ? 

Miss  Forbes.     It  is  easier  to  cultivate  a  farm  which  is  level. 

Master  Pinkham.  They  can  use  machines  better,  such  as 
the  mowing  and  reaping  machines.  I  have  read  in  the  papers 
that  some  of  the  farmers  had  engines  which  will  move  on  the 
prairies. 

Master  Pike.     They  can  build  railroads  easier. 

(After  Miss  Hayden  gave  the  main  facts  in  reference  to  the 
Atlantic  Plain,  the  teacher  read  from  the  August,  1885,  "  Atlantic 
Monthly,"  Mr.  Warner's  account  of  "  The  Lost  Pocket-Book  in 
the  Mica  Mining  Regions  of  Roan  Mountain,  North  Carolina.") 


CLIMATE  OF   NORTH  AMERICA  207 

PART  II 
A  RECITATION  IN  A  SIXTH-YEAE  CLASS 

Subject  —  Climate  of  North  America 

Object  of  the  Recitation. —  i.  To  ascertain  if  the  pupils  had  learned 
the  facts  given  them  on  the  charts  hung  up  the  day  before,  which  facts  had 
been  copied  into  their  blank-books  at  the  end  of  the  previous  lesson.  (See 
p.  291.)  2.  To  ascertain  how  fully  they  understood  and  remembered  the 
explanation  given  by  their  teacher  in  the  previous  lesson  in  reference  to  these 
facts.  3.  To  hear  their  extra  facts  learned  from  outside  sources. 

Preparation  made  by  Pupils.  —  Study  of  their  blank-books,  contain- 
ing the  epitome  of  the  climate  of  North  America  given  on  p.  296.  Study  of 
the  short  paragraphs  on  climate  in  their  text-book. 

Consultation  of  the  following  books,  etc. :  Guyotrs,  Harper's,  Swinton's, 
and  various  other  geographies;  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia;  Lippincott's 
Gazetteer  ;  "  A  Tour  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  ; "  Jackson's  "  Alaska  ; " 
"  Across  the  Continent,"  by  Bowles  ;  "  Glimpses  of  the  Earth,"  by  Blakiston  ; 
"Arctic  Explorations,"  by  Kane;  "  Mission  of  the  North-American  People," 
by  Gilpin  ;  the  Malte  Brim  Geography ;  "  Iowa  Handbook,"  by  Parker ;  "  The 
Resources  of  California,"  by  Hittel ;  "  Life  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  by  Miss 
Bird ;  "  Three  Years  in  Mexico,"  by  Stephens  ;  "  Newfoundland,"  by  Hatton  ; 
Geographical  Readers  by  Johonnot,  Philips,  Blakie,  and  the  Standard  Geo- 
graphical Reader ;  physical  geographies,  newspapers,  magazines,  letters  from 
friends,  etc. 

Preparation  made  by  Teacher.  —  Consultation  of  Johnson's  Physi- 
cal Geography;  Johonnot's  Geographical  Reader;  Dr.  Kane's  "Arctic  Ex- 
plorations;" ''North  America,"  by  Hayden;  "Picturesque  America;" 
"  American  Explorations,"  by  Nourse  ;  "  The  Round  Trip,"  by  Codman  ; 
Hayden's  "  Geographical  Surveys  ; "  "  California,"  by  Hittel ;  "  Appalachia  ;" 
"  The  Golden  State,"  by  McClellan ;  "  Mexico,"  by  Ober  ;  "  Alaska,"  by  Ball ; 
"  California,"  by  Mrs.  Ball ;  "  Santo  Bomingo,"  by  Hazard  ;  and  "  Greenland," 
by  Rink. 

THE   RECITATION. 

(Reported  by  Miss  Melissa    Dornbach,  one   of   the   pupils-. 
Pupils  called  by  card  after  the  question  was  asked.) 
Teacher.     What  causes  affect  climate  ? 


208  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Master  Woodsum.  The  latitude,  winds,  elevation,  slope, 
currents,  moisture,  and  surface. 

T.  Into  what  belts  of  climate  would  you  divide  North 
America? 

Miss  Barnes.  Into  three  belts,  —  the  northern,  central,  and 
southern. 

T.  Draw  lines  to  show  these  belts  upon  this  outline  cloth 
blackboard. 

(Miss  White  draws  the  lines,  and  they  are  slightly  changed 
by  the  criticisms  of  the  class.) 

T.     Name  the  countries  in  the  northern  belt. 

Master  Lane.  Iceland,  Greenland,  most  of  British  America, 
and  northern  part  of  Alaska. 

T.     Name  the  countries  in  the  central  belt. 

Miss  Hussey.  Canada,  the  United  States,  British  Columbia, 
and  — 

T.     Miss  Whiton. 

Miss  Whiton.     Southern  part  of  Alaska. 

T.     What  countries  in  the  southern  belt? 

Master  Kearns.     Mexico,  West  Indies,  Florida,  and  Texas. 

(Many  hands  are  raised  the  moment  the  last  word  is  uttered, 
and  forty  pupils  are  eager  to  substitute  Central  America  for 
the  unfortunate  Texas.) 

T.     What  causes  affect  the  climate  in  the  northern  belt? 

Miss  Way.     Latitude,  exposure  to  north  winds,  and  currents. 

71     What  currents  ? 

Miss  W.  The  current  from  the  Arctic,  and  the  Japanese 
current. 

T.  The  next  may  represent  those  currents  on  the  outline 
of  North  America. 

(Master  Dove  draws  arrows  with  red  crayon  to  show  the 
direction  of  the  Arctic  Current,  from  Baffin  Bay,  through  Davis 
Strait,  and  along  the  coast  of  Labrador;  and  with  green  crayon 
represents  in  a  similar  manner  the  direction  of  the  Japanese 
Current  along  the  coast  of  Alaska.) 


ICE  AND  ICEBERGS  209 

T.     Have  all  the  causes  been  given?     Hands.     Miss  Colton. 

Miss  Colton.     No,  sir;  snow  and  ice. 

T.     Is  snow  found  here  the  year  round,  Master  Huse? 

Master  Huse.     Yes,  sir,  in  many  places. 

T.     Miss  Way? 

Miss  W.  I  think  more  ice  is  seen  there  than  snow.  Kane 
in  his  book  has  a  great  deal  to  say  about  the  ice. 

T.     Miss  Hatch? 

Miss  Hatch.     The  ice  is  in  the  form  of  icebergs. 

T.     Do  you  think  most  of  it  is  in  that  form  ? 

Miss  H.     Yes,  sir. 

(Many  hands  are  raised,  especially  on  the  boys'  side.) 

T.     What  do  you  say,  Master  Bedford  ? 

Master  Bedford.  Dr.  Hayes,  in  his  book,  "  The  Land  of 
Desolation,"  has  much  to  say  about  the  formation  of  an  iceberg; 
but  he  speaks  of  seeing  miles  and  miles  of  ice  on  the  land  and 
on  the  sea,  and  only  now  and  then  of  seeing  an  iceberg.  I 
think  there  is  more  ice  there  in  glaciers  and  in  fields  of  ice  than 
in  icebergs. 

T.     Yes,  you  are  right.     Are  the  fields  of  ice  smooth  ? 

Master  B.     No  ;  they  are  usually  very  rough. 

T.     Have  you  seen  any  pictures  of  icebergs? 

Master  Merrill.  Yes,  sir ;  you  showed  us  several  pictures 
with  the  solar  camera. 

T.     How  high  were  the  icebergs  ? 

Master  M.  They  were  in  some  cases  two  hundred  and  fifty 
feet,  and  in  one  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high. 

T.     Is  most  of  the  ice  in  sight  in  these  bergs? 

Master  M.  No,  sir;  three-fourths  is  below  the  surface  of 
the  water. 

T.     Three-fourths  ?     Master  Bedford  ? 

Master  B.     Dr.  Hayes  says  seven-eighths  is  below  the  water. 

T.  Huxley  says  ice  usually  floats  so  that  only  one-tenth  is 
above  the  water.  The  pupils  had  better  experiment,  and  report 
to  me  in  two  days  from  now. 


210  METHODS  AND   AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  next  may  tell  me  what  the  climate  is  in  the  northern 
belt. 

Miss  Willey.  Frigid  ;  ground  frozen  during  the  year  ;  Hud- 
son Bay  can  be  entered  during  only  six  weeks  ;  in  some  places 
the  sun  is  not  seen  for  several  days ;  snow  falls  every  month. 

T.  Do  you  think,  Miss  Willey,  the  ground  never  thaws 
out? 

Miss  W.     I  don't  know. 

T.     Does  any  vegetation  grow  there  ? 

Miss  W.     I  suppose  so. 

71.  How  can  it  grow  if  the  ground  remains  frozen  during 
the  year  ?  Master  Dove  ? 

Master  Dove.     It  thaws  out  on  top  during  the  summer. 

T.  And  it  remains  constantly  frozen  below.  The  pupils 
who  have  learned  from  their  reading  additional  facts  may  now 
present  them. 

Master  Houghton.  The  average  temperature  in  summer  is 
fifty-nine  degrees  above  zero ;  in  winter  it  is  forty-two  degrees 
below.  It  is  ten  degrees  colder  on  the  west  side  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  sixtieth  parallel  than  in  the  Baltic  Sea. 

T.     Why? 

Master  PL  On  account  of  the  Arctic  Current  and  the  Gulf 
Stream. 

Miss  P helps.  Dr.  Kane  says  in  his  book  that  no  natural 
cold  can  arrest  travel.  He  says  he  has  walked  sixty  miles  over 
the  roughest  ice,  when  the  thermometer  was  fifty  degrees  below 
zero. 

T.  Very  good.  In  which  one  of  his  books  did  you  see  that 
fact? 

Miss  P.     In  "  Arctic  Explorations,"  vol.  2. 

Master  Burns.  The  snow  in  winter  sometimes  falls  nineteen 
feet  in  a  day. 

T.     Such  a  statement  hardly  seems  possible. 

Miss  Phelps.     Dr.  Kane  says,  in  his  "  Land  of  Desolation," 


CLIMATE  IN    DIFFERENT  BELTS  211 

that  at  one  time  about  midnight  the  sun  moved  round  to  the 
north,  gradually  sunk  lower  and  lower  till  its  upper  part  was 
just  above  the  horizon,  and  then  the  sky  became  uniformly 
golden. 

Miss  Smith. 

"  The  lands  are  there  sun-gilded  at  the  hour 

When  other  lands  are  silvered  by  the  moon : 
The  midnight  hour,  when  down  the  sun  doth  pour 
A  blaze  of  light,  as  elsewhere  at  the  noon." 

T.     Where  did  you  learn  that ?     It  is  very  appropriate. 

Miss  S.     In  "The  Land  of  Desolation." 

Master  Hinckley.  In  the  Arctic  regions,  sixty  degrees  above 
in  the  shade  seems  very  sultry. 

(The  teacher  then  read  a  short  extract  from  Hall's  "  Voyage 
in  the  Polaris,"  giving  an  account  of  the  joy  experienced  by 
his  men  when  the  sun  returned  after  an  absence  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-two  days;  and  Miss  Hayden  read  De  Long's  graphic 
description  of  "  An  Arctic  Winter  Night.'1) 

T.     What  causes  affect  the  climate  in  the  central  belt  ? 

Miss  Dornbach.     The  latitude.     Mountains.     Elevations. 

T.     Very  well.     Miss  Hicks. 

Miss  Hicks.  Moist  south  winds  from  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Different  currents,  such  as  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Japan 
Current.  West  winds  from  Pacific. 

T.  Master  McLane  may  go  to  the  board,  and  write  some  of 
t\\t  facts  about  the  climate. 

Master  McLane  wrote  the  following:  — 

Four  Seasons     Atlantic  coast 
Moist     Central  Plane  less  moist 
Pacific  coast  very  dry 

(Two-thirds  of  the  room  were  now  on  their  feet,  with  hands 
raised,  eager  for  a  chance  to  correct.  The  teacher  waved  his 
hand,  and  all  was  quiet.  He  called  the  next  card,  —  Master 


212  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Thomas.  Master  Thomas  arose,  looked  at  the  blackboard,  but 
said  nothing.) 

T.     I  am  surprised  !     Miss  White. 

Miss  White.  He  has  no  periods.  He  has  misspelled 
"plain."  And  he  has  omitted  several  things:  as,  temperate 
should  stand  first,  and  be  underlined  because  so  important. 
After  "  Atlantic  coast"  should  be  given  "lower  half  Mississippi 
Valley."  Before  u  very  dry  "  should  be  given  "  (except  west  of 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range)." 

T.  Very  good.  You  may  write  it  all  out  on  paper,  and 
bring  to  desk.  Who  can  correct  the  board  ?  (A  dozen  hands 
are  raised.  Miss  Evers  is  chosen.  Master  Darling  was  then 
called  upon  to  give  the  facts  of  climate  orally,  which  he  did, 
as  Miss  Evers  was  writing.) 

T.     Explain  "  Pacific  coast  very  dry." 

Master  Holt.  Would  not  the  expression  Pacific  highlands 
be  better  than  Pacific  coast? 

T.  How  many  agree  with  Master  Holt  ?  (Most  of  the  hands 
are  raised  in  favor  of  the  change.)  You  are  right,  Master  Holt. 
Go  on. 

Master  H.  The  Pacific  highlands  are  elevated,  and  so  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  mountains,  that  the  moist  winds  from  the  sea 
are  prevented  from  reaching  them.  This  region  is  cut  off  from 
the  west  winds  of  the  Pacific  by  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  It  is  hemmed  in  by  the  great  Rocky-Mountain  chain 
ori  the  east.  The  west  winds,  full  of  moisture  at  the  shore, 
strike  against  the  mountain  barrier,  and  give  up  their  moisture 
in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow.  So  it  is  with  the  east  winds,  and 
hence  this  section  is  very  dry. 

(After  the  causes  and  facts  in  reference  to  the  climate  of  the 
southern  belt  were  briefly  given,  the  teacher  called  Miss  Nann 
to  go  to  the  blackboard.) 

T.  Please  draw,  with  red  crayon,  a  perpendicular  line  near 
middle  of  board.  Now  write  near  top  left  column,  with  yellow 


COMPARISONS  213 

crayon,    "  Northern    Belt."      Above   right   column,   "  Southern 
Belt."     Class  do  the  same  on  paper.     Compare  the  two  belts. 
(Miss  Nann,  unaided,  made  the  following  comparisons :) 

NORTHERN  BELT.  SOUTHERN  BELT. 

Colder.  Warmer.      . 

Abundance  of  ice  and  snow.  Ice  and  snow  rarely  seen. 

Cold  winds.  Calms. 

Ground  frozen  constantly.  Frost  rarely  heard  of. 

Heavy  snowstorms.  Heavy  thunder-storms. 

Not  enough  sunshine.  Too  much  sunshine. 

(The  following  different  comparisons  were  contributed  by 
various  members  of  the  class,  and  written  .on  the  blackboard 
by  the  teacher :) 

NORTHERN  BELT.  SOUTHERN  BELT. 

Days  and  nights  very  unequal.  Days  and  nights  equal. 

Sun's  rays  oblique.  Sun's  rays  perpendicular. 

People  live  in  close  huts.  People  live  out  doors. 

People  wear  furs.  People  wear  little  clothing. 

People  eat  meat  and  fat.  People  eat  fruit  and  rice. 

Unambitious.  Lazy  and  contented. 

T.  It  is  now  the  6th  of  January.  Tell  me,  Master  Dorsey, 
what  the  climate  is  in  Southern  California  to-day. 

Master  Dorsey.     I  don't  know. 

T.     Master  Mooar. 

Master  Mooar.  If  we  should  leave  Boston  to-day  with  the 
thermometer  at  zero,  and  the  ground  covered  with  six  inches  of 
snow,  and  visit  Los  Angeles  in  the  southern  part  of  California, 
we  should  see  the  people  wearing,  instead  of  overcoats  and  seal- 
skin caps,  and  furs,  thin  summer  clothes ;  instead  of  sitting 
about  a  stove  or  register  in  the  house,  sitting  out  doors  on  the 
piazza,  or  under  the  shade,  or  gathering  roses  and  heliotrope 
from  the  garden  ;  while  the  boys  would  be  picking  oranges  or 
bananas. 


214  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

T.  That  is  not  quite  true  about  the  thin  clothing,  as  the 
nights  are  cold.  The  climate  is  like  ours  in  September.  The 
average  winter  temperature  is  about  sixty  degrees. 

71  Compare  the  climate  in  the  central  belt,  Atlantic  side, 
with  the  countries  exactly  east  across  the  ocean. 

Miss  Peters.     Shall  I  write  it  on  the  board  ? 

T.    Yes. 

CLIMATE  OF 

Europe,  40°  N.  United  States,  40°  5. 

Naples.  New  York. 

Equable.  Changeable. 

Mild  winters.  Cold  winters. 

Warm  summers.  Very  hot  summers. 

North  and  south  winds.  East  and  west  winds. 

Sky  cloudless  for  months.  Clouds  and  rain  frequent. 

Trees  in  leaf  in  March.  Trees  in  leaf  in  May. 

Malaria  common.  Very  healthy. 

T.  What  was  told  you  about  the  climate  of  Sitka  ?  Miss 
Porter. 

Miss  Porter.  The  climate  there  is  moist  and  warm.  In 
most  winters  the  thermometer  does  not  register  below  zero; 
only  four  times,  I  believe  you  said,  in  forty  years.  In  one 
winter  the  ice  only  formed  once,  and  then  it  froze  only  about 
as  thick  as  a  knife-blade.  Sitka  is  warmer  than  Boston.  It  is 
about  as  warm  as  Kentucky. 

T.     Give  the  cause. 

Miss  P.  This  mild  climate  so  far  north  is  due  to  the  Japan 
Current,  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

T.     What  was  said  about  "jerking  meat"  ? 

Master  Jenks.  The  climate  in  Nevada  is  so  dry  that  fresh 
meat  dries  by  hanging  it  up,  so  as  to  keep  sweet  for  months. 
The  same  is  true  of  Southern  Dakota.  You  also  said  the  snow 
is  evaporated  without  turning  to  water.  It  disappears  into  the 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  CLIMATE  215 

T.  How  many  remember  what  I  read  you  yesterday  from 
"  Appalachia"  about  the  climate  of  Cuba?  (A  dozen  hands  are 
raised.) 

Master  Tufts.  In  the  morning  there  is  a  land-breeze.  The 
sea-breeze  or  trade-wind  sets  in  about  ten  o'clock.  Soon  clouds 
begin  to  appear,  and  usually  a  local  shower  begins  about  one 
o'clock.  By  three  o'clock  it  is  generally  fair  again. 

T.  I  am  pleased  to  notice  your  interest  in  the  subject ;  but 
the  time  is  nearly  gone,  and  we  will  try  to  finish  the  lesson 
to-morrow.  Meanwhile  review  the  facts  in  the  blank-book, 
make  notes  of  the  new  facts  learned  to-day,  and  bring  in  as 
much  additional  matter  as  each  can  find  on  the  climate  of  North 
America. 

THE   NEXT   DAY. 

Teacher.  (After  five  minutes  in  review.)  All  listen  carefully, 
now,  to  my  story. 

Imagine  it  to  be  Feb.  I.  I  am  sailing  southward  up  a  river. 
The  land  along  the  banks  is  covered  with  the  richest  vegeta- 
tion ;  flowers  in  bloom  on  every  side.  The  people  are  busy  in 
gathering  large  crops  of  large-sized  oranges.  In  what  belt 
is  it?  Class. 

Class.     Southern  belt. 

T.  Who  can  tell  exactly  where?  (A  dozen  hands  are  raised. 
After  one  or  two  failures,  Master  Forbes  answers  correctly : 
The  St.  John's  River,  Florida.) 

T.     Miss  Peters  may  give  a  description. 

Miss  Peters.  It  is  the  last  of  May.  Few  clouds  are  in  the 
sky.  The  thermometer  stands  at  eighty  in  the  shade.  Thick 
clothes  are  uncomfortable.  The  warm  sun  has  caused  the 
grass  to  grow.  Birds  are  building  their  nests,  and  flowers  are 
abundant.  In  what  belt  ? 

T.     Master  Holt? 

Master  Holt.  In  the  central  belt.  It  may  be  in  New 
England. 


2l6         METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

(The  teacher  reads :  "  It  is  June.  The  temperature  has  slowly 
risen  from  thirty-five  degrees  below  zero  to  thirty-five  degrees 
above.  The  whiteness  which  has  so  long  clothed  the  hills  and 
valleys  is  giving  way  under  the  influence  of  the  sun's  warm 
rays.  The  torrents  of  the  melted  snow  are  dashing  wildly  down 
the  rugged  gorges,  or  bounding  in  cascades  from  the  lofty 
cliffs,  and  the  air  is  everywhere  filled  with  the  pleasing  roar  of 
falling  water.  The  sap  has  started  in  the  willow  stems,  while 
ice  and  snow  yet  lie  around  the  roots.  The  air  is  filled  with 
the  cry  of  birds ;  flocks  of  eider-ducks  sweep  over  the  harbor 
in  rapid  flight.  The  seals  lie  basking  in  the  warm  sun.  Crowds 
of  icebergs  are  sailing  out  of  the  sound  towards  the  south, 
their  crystals  tumbling  from  them  as  they  go."  J) 

What  place  does  the  author  describe  ?  (Many  hands  are 
raised.)  Master  Pike? 

Master  Pike.     Alaska. 

T.     It  is  possible.     Master  Darling? 

Master  Darling.     I  think  it  is  near  Greenland. 

T.     Why  ? 

Master  Darling.     Eider-ducks  are  found  there. 

T.  You  are  right.  Hayes  was  then  in  Smith  Sound.  Miss 
Dornbach  may  give  a  description. 

Miss  Dornbach.     Can  I  read  it  ? 

T.     Yes. 

D.  It  is  summer.  The  nights  are  oppressively  warm  ;  the 
days  so  hot,  no  one  ventures  to  go  out  in  the  sun.  Every  thing 
is  drying  up.  The  cocoa-palms  wave  their  long  leaves  wildly  in 
the  wind.  The  bananas  and  mangoes  are  crying  for  rain.  Fear- 
ing the  dangerous  fever  common  to  the  country,  I  arise  at  four 
o'clock  A.M.,  take  the  morning  train  at  five,  and  soon  begin  to 
rise  higher  and  higher  as  I  go  away  from  the  coast.  In  a  few 
hours  I  am  twenty-five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  new 
climatic  zone,  and  dare  to  breathe  the  pure  air  without  fear  of 

1  Altered  from  Hayes's  Open  Polar  Sea. 


CLIMATE  IN   MEXICO  21  7 

the  yellow  fever.  The  breezes  here  are  cool.  Oranges,  apples, 
and  peaches  abound,  instead  of  palms.  The  houses  are  more 
substantial.  Higher  and  higher  I  ascend,  through  tunnels,  over 
gorges,  winding  about.  The  air  by  and  by  is  decidedly  chilly, 
almost  frigid.  I  put  on  my  wraps.  The  hills  are  covered  with 
oak  woods,  the  pastures  covered  with  green  grass.  It  is  eight 
thousand  feet  in  height.  Then  I  descended  into  a  valley  where 
the  temperature  is  about  seventy-five  degrees.  The  mornings 
and  nights  are  cool ;  the  climate,  temperate.  Where  did  I  make 
the  journey  ? 

T.     Hands.     (A  score  are  eagerly  raised.) 

Class.     In  Mexico. 

T.     When  did  you  prepare  that  ? 

Miss  D.     Last  night. 

7".     From  what  books  did  you  get  your  facts  ? 

Miss  D.  Ober's  "  Mexico,"  and  "  Three  Years  in  Mexico  " 
by  Stephens,  and  what  you  have  told  us. 

T.  Very  well  done.  The  class  should  imitate  Miss  Dorn- 
bach.  We  are  ready  now  for  facts  in  reference  to  either  the 
central  or  southern  belt. 

(Many  facts  were  given.     The  most  interesting  were:  — 

Gilpin  says  the  climate  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  plateau  is  so 
healthy  and  pleasant,  houses  are  not  necessary.  For  six  years 
he  slept  most  of  the  time  under  the  open  sky.  The  valley  of 
the  Mississippi  would  be  a  rainless  desert,  if  the  trade-winds 
were  not  deflected  northwards  by  the  mountains  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Mexico.  The  moisture  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is 
easily  carried  northward  because  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  are 
everywhere  so  low,  scarcely  above  the  sea  level.  Miss  Bird 
says  the  climate  of  Colorado  is  considered  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  air  is  very  dry ;  the  rainfall  below  the  average. 
Dews  are  rare,  and  fogs  unknown.  The  sunshine  is  bright,  and 
three-fourths  of  the  days  are  cloudless.  People  sleep  out  doors 
six  months  of  the  year. 


2l8  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Barnes's  Geography  says  that  the  storms  passing  over  the 
North  Central  States  originate  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
travel  eastward. 

Harper's  Geography  says  that  the  intense  heat  of  the  West 
Indies  is  modified  by  the  trade-winds.) 

T.  The  pupils  who  have  selections  may  read  as  far  as  there 
is  time. 

(One  pupil  read  about  a  sudden  storm,  which  Dr.  Hayes 
describes  in  "  Land  of  Desolation." 

Another  read  N.  P.  Willis's  contrast  between  the  climate 
of  Europe  and  America,  as  given  in  Johonnot's  Geographical 
Reader.  Master  Jones  read  an  account  from  some  newspaper, 
of  a  family  buried  for  three  days  under  the  snow  in  Nevada. 
Another  pupil  read  about  "  The  Black  Man's  Paradise  m 
Jamaica." 

Master  Jenks  read  part  of  a  letter  from  his  father  in  the 
mountains  of  North  Carolina,  describing  the  healthfulness  of 
that  region. 

The  teacher  read  from  Jackson's  "  Alaska "  Joseph  Cook's 
account  of  the  two  great  oceanic  currents.1  He  also  read  the 
following  extract  from  a  friend's  letter :  — 

'*  HALF- WAY  HOUSE;  JAMAICA,  Nov.  30. 

"  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  nonchalance  with  which  these 
people  are  preparing  for  winter.  They  have  not  stopped  a  crack  in 
their  houses,  —  and  their  houses  are  nearly  all  cracks ;  they  have 
not  harvested  a  potato,  nor  put  a  ton  of  hay  in  the  barn,  —  of  course 
not ;  they  have  no  barns  to  put  it  in,  and  do  not  appear  to  be  inclined 
to  build  any ;  they  do  not  know  what  barns  are.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  cellar  for  winter,  —  they  have  no  cellars,  don't  know  any  thing 
about  them;  and,  strangest  of  all,  they  have  precious  little  in  their 
houses.  They  do  have  houses,  some  of  them ;  others  have  only 
little  bamboo  huts,  that  keep  off  a  little  sunshine  and  rain. 

"  It  is  rarely  that  you  can  find  food  enough  in  a  house  for  a  lunch, 
at  any  time  except  lunch-time.  They  live  *  from  hand  to  mouth,' 
i  Page  293. 


EXTRACT   FROM   A   LETTER 


219 


some  one  might  say.  No,  not  so  much  as  that  even ;  for  it  is  easier 
to  leave  the  food  in  the  ground,  or  on  the  tree,  till  it  is  wanted,  than 
to  find  houseroom  for  it. 

"  In  the  ground  are  yams,  potatoes  in  variety,  cassava,  arrowroot, 
etc.  On  the  trees  are  cocoanuts,  bread-fruit,  —  I  had  some  for 
dinner,  —  chirimoyas,  sweet  sops,  sour  sops,  avocato  pears  (some- 
times called  alligator  pears),  bananas,  plantains,  pineapples,  oranges, 
limes,  mammees,  granadillas,  coffee,  chocolate,  nutmegs,  cinnamon, 
vanilla,  —  well,  a  whole  pantry  outfit ;  every  thing  good  for  man  or 
beast,  to  be  had  almost  for  the  taking,  at  any  hour,  all  the  "  delicacies 
of  all  the  seasons." 


CHAPTER    XI 

SIX  YEARS'  COURSE  OF  STUDY 


THE  proper  object  of  the  teacher's  most  profound  study  is  not, 
then,  the  course  of  study,  or  the  text-book,  but  the  child  himself. 

S.  T.  Dutlon. 


BOOKS  FOR   CONSULTATION 


CROCKER'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 
GEIKIE'S  METHODS  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 
How  TO  TEACH,  BY  KIDDLE  AND  OTHERS. 
JOHNSON'S  PHYSICAL  AND  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 
HUGHES'S  CLASS-BOOK  OF  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 
PEAVEY'S  MANUAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 
RECLUS'S  THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 
RICHARDSON'S  SCHOOL  MANUAL  OF  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 
STANFORD'S  COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  TRAVEL. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SIX  YEARS'  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

IMPORTANCE  OF  PROPER  CLASSIFICATION  OF  TOPICS  —  FIRST  YEAR:  WHAT  TO  STUDY 
—  TALKING  AND  READING  —  HELPS  —  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  SECOND  YEAR: 
SAME  SUB-TOPICS  AS  FIRST  YEAR. 

THE  proper  arrangement  of  topics  for  the  different 
classes  is  one  of  the  most  important  matters  connected 
with  the  topical  study  of  geography.  In  many  schools  such 
an  arrangement  is  never  attempted ;  in  only  a  few  is  it 
wisely  done  by  practical  teachers  who  desire  to  carry  out  their 
own  theories  in  real  teaching.  Wherever  this  arrangement 
is  neglected,  a  vast  amount  of  time  is  wasted  through  foolish 
repetitions,  the  teaching  of  useless  details,  and  the  present- 
ing of  subjects  in  an  unphilosophical  order.  Time  is  also 
wasted  because  the  work  of  the  lower  teacher  does  not  fit 
into  and  prepare  the  way  for  that  of  the  upper.  The  proper 
arrangement  of  topics  for  each  class  is  just  as  important 
and  beneficial  for  the  school  as  the  programme  of  studies 
is  for  the  city.  The  latter  is  quite  general  in  its  character, 
and  is  usually  prepared  by  the  superintendent  of  schools ; 
the  former  enters  largely  into  details,  and  can  best  be  pre- 
pared by  inspectors,  assistant  superintendents,  or  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  school.  Each  arrangement  should  be  more  or 
less  individual,  and  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the 
particular  school  in  which  it  is  to  be  used. 

-23 


224  METHODS  AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  preparation  of  such  an  arrangement,  much  assist- 
ance can  be  obtained  from  consulting  such  a  valuable  work 
as  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,  by  Miss  Lucretia 
Crocker,  late  supervisor  of  Boston  schools.  This  little 
book,  costing  only  sixty  cents  (School  Supply  Co.,  Bromfield 
Street,  Boston),  is  the  result  of  a  life-work  of  enthusiastic 
study,  and  is  crowded  with  the  most  valuable  suggestions 
and  condensed  information.  A  Manual  of  Geography,  by 
Frank  Peavy,  Tappan  School,  Detroit,  will  not  only  help 
teachers  in  arranging  topics  correctly,  but  also  assist  them 
in  teaching  these  topics.  How  to  Teach,  by  H.  Kiddle  and 
others,  New  York,  is  also  recommended. 

The  arrangement  of  subject  matter  for  study  presented 
below  is  founded  upon  the  requirements  in  geography  in  a 
large  city,  where  the  schools  are  well  graded.  Its  practical 
working  is  only  possible  under  such  circumstances.  Each 
teacher  must  contract  or  enlarge  it  to  suit  his  own  school. 
The  attempt  is  made  in  this  and  the  following  chapter  to 
arrange  subjects  according  to  the  mental  capacity  of  the 
pupils,  to  present  them  in  a  natural  order,  and  to  give  each 
class  some  advance  work  to  do.  It  is  believed,  if  such  an 
assignment  of  geographical  work  were  carefully  followed  in 
a  school,  it  would  save  a  large  amount  of  time  now  wasted 
by  repetition  and  drill  on  non-essentials.  The  pupils  the 
first  year  are  supposed  to  be  about  nine  years  of  age. 

FIRST  YEAR  OF  STUDY 
I.    Study. 

a.  Study  distance,  direction,  points  of  the  compass. 

b.  Study  map  language. 

Test  the  pupils  in  measuring  distances  and  length,  with 
the  eye  and  with  a  ruler. 


FIRST   YEAR   OF   STUDY  225 

Make  a  plan  of  the  desk ;  then  with  objects  upon  it ; 
schoolroom,  ground- floor,  school-yard. 

Explain  and  draw  to  different  scales,  as  one  foot  to  an 
inch. 

Read  map  symbols  on  wall  maps. 

Study  the  surface  of  the  town,  boundary-lines,  then  draw 
maps  of  immediate  vicinity  from  pupil's  own  observation. 
Study  maps  of  vicinity. 

c.  Lessons  on  natural  features  from  observation  ;  from  the 
moulding-board,  pictures,  maps.     The  pupils,  with  a  little 
help    from    the    teacher,   make    the    definitions    from    their 
observations.     Mould  the  town,  representing  a  mile  by  an 
inch. 

d.  Study  the  world  as  a  whole. 

Form  of  the  world  illustrated.  The  two  motions  stated, 
but  not  fully  explained. 

Show  from  globe  hot  parts,  cold  parts  ;  zones,  four  hemi- 
spheres, two  continents,  six  grand  divisions,  seven  oceans 
(North  Atlantic,  South  Atlantic,  etc.).  Direction  and  com- 
parative size,  as  Asia,  largest ;  Europe,  smallest ;  Africa, 
second  ;  Australia,  south  of  Africa,  etc. 

Two  of  the  grand  divisions  (North  and  South  America) 
compared  in  reference  to  climate,  animals,  a  few  productions, 
and  some  striking  characteristics  of  the  .people. 

II.    Talking  and  Reading. 

TALKING.  —  Tell  an  imaginary  journey  ;  as,  to  New  Hamp- 
shire for  hay,  to  New- York  State  for  salt,  or  to  New- York 
City  to  see  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  to  Pennsylvania  for  coal, 
to  California  for  gold,  etc.  Talk  about  school  district, 
parish,  ward,  villages,  native  town  ;  about  San  Francisco ; 
post-office,  express  business,  divisions  of  time.. 


226  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Surface  of  the  town  or  city. 

Local  animals. 

Characteristic  animals  in  each  grand  division. 

Occupations  and  habits,  dress  and  mode  of  life,  of  people 
far  away,  as  Chinese,  Japanese,  Bedouins,  Esquimaux,  exiles 
in  Siberia,  Hottentots,  etc. 

READING.  —  Read  from  Scribner's  Geographical  Reader, 
Guyot's  Introductory  Geography,  or  Our  World  No.  i  ; 
Seven  Little  Sisters,  Each  and  All,  Miss  Andrews ;  Under- 
foot, Miss  Nichols  ;  Animal  Life,  Miss  Marwood. 

HISTORY.  —  Stories  of  voyages,  of  discoveries,  of  settle- 
ments of  New  England,  of  the  Revolution,  of  progress 
and  inventions. 

III.    Helps. 

Globes,  hemispheres,  maps,  colored  crayons,  pasteboard 
outlines  of  the  grand  divisions,  plans,  charts,  outline  map 
on  blackboard  cloth,  Frye's  relief  maps,  moulding-board, 
magnifying-glass,  etc. 

OBJECTS.  —  Fur,  leather,  spices,  nests,  eggs,  stones,  shells, 
toys ;  any  kind  of  articles,  obtainable  by  loan  or  otherwise, 
referring  to  foreign  countries. 

Pictures  of  animals,  —  Prang's  Natural'  History  Series  in 
six  small  books.  Pictures  of  places,  of  cities,  mountains, 
rivers,  costumes,  etc.,  such  as  are  found  in  geographies  and 
books  of  travel,  if  stereoscopic  and  photographic  pictures  are 
not  accessible. 

BOOKS  (in  addition  to  those  given  under  Reading)  for 
consultation  :  Science  Primers,  Physical  Geography,  Astron- 
omy;  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,  Miss  Kirby ;  Little 
Lucy^s  Wonderful  Globe,  Miss  Yonge  ;  Life  and  her  Children, 
Miss  Buckley  ;  Little  Folks  in  Feather  and  Fur  ;  Rollo  Books. 


FIRST  AND   SECOND  YEAR  OF  STUDY  227 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

Each  class  should  have  its  advance  work,  its  outside  or 
extra  work,  and  its  review  work.  The  advance  and  review 
work  is  placed  under  "I.  Study."  The  extra  work  comes 
under  "  II.  Talking  and  Reading."  It  can  be  called  "  Special 
Oral  Geography."  Great  freedom  and  latitude  should  be 
allowed  the  teacher  under  this  head.  It  may  be  wise  for 
the  teacher  to  omit  or  change  much  herein  arranged.  Each 
topic  should  be  touched  upon  in  the  most  simple  and  element- 
ary way.  Frequent  repetitions  will  be  necessary.  Allow 
the  scholars  to  tell  all  they  know  first.  No  especial  order  is 
necessary  in  taking  up  the  topics  under  "  II."  The  more 
"Study"  and  "Talking"  can  be  mingled  together,  the 
better.  It  is  desirable  to  take  these  topics  together,  instead 
of  consecutively.  The  reading  exercises  from  the  books 
given,  or  their  equivalents,  will  furnish  excellent  opportuni- 
ties for  language  and  talking  lessons. 

In  Sixth  Class,  "  I.  Study,  b"  be  careful  and  not  spend 
too  much  time.  Many  interesting  pictures  to  illustrate  work 
can  be  obtained  from  the  different  geographies,  illustrated 
papers,  etc. 

Frye's  relief  maps  are  made,  and  sold  at  reasonable 
prices,  by  the  Bay  State  Publishing  Company,  Hyde  Park, 
Mass. 

SECOND  YEAR  OF  STUDY 
I.    Study. 

Finish  grand  divisions  (see  d,  Class  Six).  Study  North 
America  topically  according  to  schedule  i,  Chap.  III. 


228  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

II.    Talking  and  Reading. 

a.  TALKING.  —  Characteristic/;-^//  of  each  grand  division. 
Races,  occupations,  vegetation,  the  weather,  atmosphere, 

forms  of  water.  Population  of  the  district,  ward,  town,  or 
city,  as  a  help  in  comparison. 

Coast-line  ;  difference  between  maps  and  globes.  Plants 
used  for  food,  clothing,  fuel,  medicine,  building-material. 
Industries  of  the  town ;  the  railroads. 

Useful  plants,  vine,  palm,  rice,  sugar-cane,  dye-woods, 
cotton. 

What  is  found  under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  —  building- 
stones,  coal,  metals,  gold,  silver,  etc.  What  is  found  in 
water,  —  fish,  whales,  salt,  corals,  sponges,  etc. 

b.  READING.  —  Finish  books  in  Class  Six.     Little  People 
of  Asia,  Miller  ;  Bodley  Family  Abroad ;  Zig-Zag  Journeys  ; 
Hunting  Adventures,  Knox  ;  Adrift  in  the  Ice  Fields,  Hall. 

HISTORY.  —  More  stories  on  the  same  subjects  mentioned 
in  First  Year's  Work.  Also  stories  of  the  Presidents,  of 
social  and  industrial  life,  of  the  civil  war. 

III.    Helps. 

(See  Sixth  Class.) 

OBJECTS.  —  Minerals,  ores,  coal,  whalebone,  cotton,  indigo, 
oranges,  bananas,  lemons,  articles  on  breakfast-table,  etc. 

PICTURES.  — Vegetable  life  (see  Swinton's  Grammar  School 
Geography),  fruit-trees,  mining,  hunting,  fishing,  and  other 
industries  (see  Appletons'  Geography),  Indians,  Esquimaux, 
etc.  Twelve  series  of  Geographical  Readers. 
.  BOOKS  FOR  CONSULTATION.  —  Those  of  Class  Six.  Also, 
How  Plants  Grow,  Gray  ;  Science  Ladders,  Nos.  i  and  3  ; 
Boys  of  Other  Countries,  Taylor ;  Round  the  World,  by  a 


SECOND  YEAR  OF  STUDY  229 

Boy,  Smiles;  Spectacles  for  Young  Eyes,  Landor ;  Rocky 
Mountains,  Miss  Bird ;  Santo  Domingo,  Hazard.  Arctic 
Regions,  by  Hayes,  Hall,  Kane,  Markham,  etc. 

PICTURES.  —  Pictures  of  cities  in  the  geographies  ;  bird's- 
eye  views  (see  Swinton's,  Harper's,  and  McNally's)  ;  mining- 
operations,  whaling,  cotton  -  field,  cotton-mill,  rice  -  fields 
(Harper's,  p.  46),  sugar-cane  field  (McNally's,  p.  85)  ; 
Niagara  Falls  (see  Warren's,  and  fourth  volume  of  any  geo- 
graphical series)  ;  public  buildings,  as  Capitol  at  Washington, 
at  Albany,  Old  South  Church,  Independence  Hall,  New  City 
Hall  San  Francisco  {New  Eclectic  Geography),  etc.  Excel- 
lent pictures  will  be  found  in  any  of  the  sets  of  Geographical 
Readers,  such  as  Blackie's,  Whitehall's,  Philip's,  etc.  Cood 
pictures  of  the  canons  of  the  Colorado,  of  Pueblo  restored 
and  a  room  inside,  big  trees,  wonderland  of  the  Yellowstone, 
etc.,  can  be  found  in  Zig-Zag  Journey  to  the  Occident ;  27ie 
Atlantic  Islands,  Benjamin;  Niagara;  American  Scenery; 
Homes  of  America,  Lamb  ;  American  Pictures,  Manning. 

BOOKS  FOR  CONSULTATION.  —  (See  Sixth  and  Fifth  Classes.) 
Florida,  Mrs.  Robbins ;  Heart  of  the  White  Mountains, 
Drake  ;  The  Great  South,  King ;  Rocky  Mountains,  Miss 
Ball ;  Indian  Traits,  Thatcher ;  Greenland,  Hayes  ;  Races 
cf  Mankind,  Brown  (vol.  i.)  ;  Underfoot,  Miss  Nichols; 
Physical  Geography,  Geikie  ;  Science  Primers,  —  Natural 
Resources  of  the  United  States  ;  Mines  and  Mining,  Jones  ; 
Erom  Eifth  Avenue  to  Alaska. 

PRACTICAL   SUGGESTIONS 

In  taking  up  North  America  in  this  class,  very  little  time 
should  be  spent  on  position,  on  the  names  of  places, 
mountains,  or  rivers,  as  such  and  unassociated  with  some 


230  METHODS  AND   AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

interesting  fact.  But  human  and  animal  life,  productions, 
commerce,  imaginary  journeys,  all  that  is  wonderful,  grand, 
and  marvellous,  should  receive  all  the  time  circumstances 
will  allow.  Remember,  children  learn  indirectly  and  by  asso- 
ciation. North  America  is  not  to  be  studied  now  with  the 
care  and  detail  it  will  be  in  the  fourth  year  of  study.  Try 
to  get  the  children  to  talk,  to  tell  a  continuous  story  about 
the  subject.  Let  the  first  maps  be  drawn  on  the  north  side 
of  the  room. 

No  piece  of  apparatus  is  more  valuable  than  the  outline 
map  painted  on  the  blackboard  in  oil,  for  it  can  be  used  in 
such  a  variety  of  ways,  both  in  teaching  and  in  recitation. 
The  helps  mentioned  above,  or  their  equivalents,  are  easily 
obtained  in  most  cities  in  this  country,  by  a  little  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  pupils  themselves  will  gladly 
help.  Get  one  new  piece  of  apparatus  at  a  time,  one  speci- 
men, one  picture,  one  book.  Splendid  pictures  are  found 
in  the  various  sets  of  geographical  readers. 

The  children  will  become  intensely  interested  if  the 
teacher  will  spend  half  an  hour  a  week  in  talking  about  and 
asking  questions  in  reference  to  subjects  they  know  some- 
thing about  already  :  such  as  the  post-office  ;  express  busi- 
ness ;  any  leading  industry  near  the  school,  in  which  some 
of  the  parents  are  engaged  ;  the  common  animals  and  insects 
that  are  found  near  the  school;  the  inequalities  of  the 
surface  near  by.  In  developing  any  of  these  topics,  the 
teacher  should  at  first,  by  questions,  call  out  all  the  infor- 
mation possessed  by  the  pupils.  The  blackboard  should  be 
used  for  illustration,  and  to  record  the  points  made  from 
simple  illustrations  used ;  as,  postage-stamp,  envelope,  etc., 
when  the  post-office  is  the  subject. 


STUDY,  TALKING  AND   READING  23! 

THIRD  YEAR  OF  STUDY 
I.    Study. 

a.  United  States  as  a  whole,  topically  (using  topics  similar 
to  those  given  for  previous  class,  in  previous  article). 

Mould  the  country. 

Trace  outline  of  United  States,  and  fill  up  the  map  as  the 
study  proceeds.  Commer.ce  of  United  States. 

b.  Then  the  following  sections,  using  same  topics  :  New 
England   (if  not  taken)  ;    Middle  States  ;    Atlantic  States ; 
Gulf  States.     One  section  moulded. 

c.  Some  of  the  following  representative  States  :    Massa- 
chusetts, New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Florida,  Texas. 

d.  Mathematical  geography  reviewed  and  enlarged.    Form, 
size,    motions ;    zones,    parallels,    meridians.       (Illustrated, 
talked  about,  and  drawn.)     Latitude,  longitude,  circles,  etc. 
(not  from  book). 

e.  Review  the  work  of  previous  classes. 

II.    Talking  and  Reading. 

TALKING.  —  (Any  omitted  subjects  given  in  previous  class.) 
Boston,  trade,  wealth,  money ;  roads,  stage-coaches,  street- 
railroads,  canals,  railroads.  More  practice  on  map-reading. 

Occupations  in  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  United 
States  made  prominent :  as,  — 

Mining  for  coal  and  iron  in  Pennsylvania ;  cotton-raising, 
cotton  manufacturing ;  fishing  for  cod,  for  whales ;  other 
manufacturing  (especially  any  in  the  vicinity).  Show  how 
occupations  are  influenced  by  climate,  surface,  etc. 

Air, — necessary  to  life  ;  in  motion  (wind).  Moisture  in 
the  air,  —  clouds,  rain,  dew  (familiar  illustrations). 


232  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Prominent  cities  in  eastern  and  southern  part ;  as  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Washington,  New  Orleans.  Government 
and  religion  (not  from  book). 

READING  to  the  class  as  time  permits  :  The  Sunny  South, 
Ingraham  ;  Wild  Life  in  Florida,  Townshend  ;  Eastward 
Ho  !  Rangeley  Lakes,  Farrar ;  A  Trip  Eastward,  E.  Abbott ; 
A  Summer  Cruise;  Adrift  in  the  Ice  Fields,  Hall;  Cast 
Away  in  the  Cold,  Hayes. 

HISTORY.  —  The  more  interesting  and  vital  topics  of 
the  United  States  history  should  now  be  read  from  some 
good  text-book,  such  as  Barnes's,  Scudder's,  Johnson's,  or 
Higginson's. 

III.    Helps. 

(See  Same  in  Fifth  Class.) 

Sonnenschein  and  Allen's  atlas  of  raised  maps  ;  putty  or 
plaster- Paris  raised  map  large  enough  for  the  class  to  see  ; 
or  Frye's  raised  maps.  Outline  map  on  blackboard  cloth  ; 
review  charts ;  physical  charts  ;  scrap-book. 

OBJECTS.  —  Iron  from  Pennsylvania  ;  soft,  hard,  and  irides- 
cent coal ;  silver  ore  from  New  Hampshire  or  Massachusetts  ; 
granite  from  Concord,  Cape  Ann,  Quincy ;  sandstone  from 
Portland,  Connecticut ;  coral  and  sponges  from  Florida ; 
cotton-plant  from  the  South,  etc. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

There  is  no  greater  waste  of  time  than  in  studying  each 
State  separately  by  itself,  as  is  usually  done  in  most  text- 
books. The  topical  method  obviates  all  this  loss  of  time 
and  energy,  by  collating  and  comparing  facts.  For  exam- 
ple, instead  of  teaching  what  are  the  productions  of  each 
separate  State,  the  topical  method  tries  to  lead  the  child  to 


PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS  '    233 

learn  where  are  the  noted  corn,  wheat,  rice,  cotton,  and 
sugar  tracts  or  sections.  Questions  should  be  used  with 
the^topical  method. 

What  railroad  leads  from  your  town  across  the  country? 
What  are  the  four  largest  trunk  lines  in  your  vicinity?  What 
kind  of  business  does  each  one  do  ?  Where  is  the  nearest  port  ? 

What  are  the  leading  industries  of  your  town,  State,  sec- 
tion? A  class  at  this  stage  of  geographical  study  should  be 
ready  to  answer  hundreds  of  just  such  practical  questions. 

In  some  towns,  teachers  have  spent  much  time  upon 
locality  in  Asia  or  Greenland,  and  neglected  the  places  near 
home.  Home  locality  should  be  carefully  studied.  Chil- 
dren ought  to  know  all  the  towns  lying  about  the  home 
town  for  a  radius  of  ten  or  more  miles. 

Do  not  neglect  the  progressive  map  as  a  means  of  aiding 
the  memory.  Remember  the  reviews.  A  review  chart  will 
create  much  interest,  and  save  time  and  strength.  The 
largest  blackboard  in  the  room  may  be  divided  into  six  or 
more  columns,  and  each  column  headed  by  some  important 
topic,  such  as  surface,  drainage,  climate,  the  people,  etc. 
Then  the  pupils  are  called  to  write  by  single  words  facts 
learned  during  the  study. 

The  putty  necessary  to  make  a  large  raised  map  costs 
from  five  to  ten  cents.  Putty  can  now  be  purchased  of  al- 
most any  color,  and  kept  moist  by  the  addition  of  a  little  oil. 

In  all  attempts  to  trace,  use  the  best  tracing-paper  pro- 
curable ;  but  if  the  regular  quality  is  not  easily  obtained,  or 
is  too  costly,  thin  manilla  paper  will  make  a  good  substitute. 
A  practical  scrap-book  can  be  made  at  any  time,  with  little 
labor  or  cost,  by  cutting  out  every  other  leaf  from  some 
large  book,  like  an  old  disused  "  record-book  of  attendance." 


CHAPTER    XII 

SIX  YEARS'  COURSE  OF  STUDY,  Concluded 


No  drearier  task  can  be  set  for  the  worst  of  criminals  than  that 
of  studying  a  set  of  geographical  text-books  such  as  the  children 
in  our  schools  are  doomed  to  use.  Pages  of  "  tables,"  —  "  tables  "  of 
heights,  and  "  tables  "  of  areas;  "  tables  "  of  mountains,  and  "  tables  " 
of  tablelands ;  "  tables "  of  numerals,  which  look  like  arithmetical 
problems,  but  are  really  statements  of  population  :  these,  arranged  in 
an  alphabetical  order,  or  disorder,  form  the  only  breaks  in  a  chaotic 
mass  of  what  are  amusingly  styled  "geographical"  facts,  but  which 
turn  out  to  be  simply  names,  —  names  of  rivers,  and  names  of  hills  ; 
names  of  countries,  and  names  of  towns.  Books  such  as  these  are 
simply  appeals  to  memory ;  they  are  handbooks  of  mnemonics,  in- 
stead of  handbooks  of  geography.  —  Professor  J.  R.  Green,  England. 


235 


BOOKS   FOR   CONSULTATION 


[Consult  the  list  of  books  given  at  beginning  of  Chapter  XL] 
236 


CHAPTER   XII 
SIX  YEARS'  COURSE  OF  STUDY,  Concluded 

FOURTH  YEAR  OF  STUDY 
I.    Study. 

ATORTH  AMERICA  and  Europe  :  Central  States,  Pacific 
1M  States,  Territories. 

Representative  States  and  Territories  :  Illinois,  California, 
Nevada,  Alaska. 

United  States  reviewed  as  a  whole. 

Study  from  the  following  topics  :  — 

It.  Hemispheres. 
2.  Zone. 
3.  Shape. 
4.  Comparative  size. 
5.  Progressive  map,  diagram  and  outline. 

It.  Ranges. 

{2.  Peaks. 
3.  Heights. 
ir    I 
4.  Volcanoes. 

2.   Surface <j  la.  Plateaus. 

I   2.  Lowlands. 
I  3.  Draw  Profile. 

{i.  Water  Partings. 

2.  Lakes. 

3.  River  Systems. 
4.  Climate. 

{i.  Named  in  order. 

2.  Capitals. 

3.  Principal  Towns  (only  a  few). 
6.  Natural  Divisions  (very  few). 

237 


233 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


3.  Human.        <J 


1.  Vegetable. 

2.  Animal. 

C  i .  Races. 
7-  Life 2-  Population 

3.  Occupation. 

4.  Manners  and  Customs. 

5.  Education. 

6.  Religion. 

7.  Government. 

8.  Commerce. 

8.  Productions. 

9.  Exports  and  Imports. 
10.  Journeys. 

u.  Comparisons  throughout. 

Or,  if  you  prefer,  from  Schedules  Nos.  i  or  2,  on  p.  46. 

Memory-maps  of  North  America  and  Europe.  Compari- 
sons should  henceforth  be  made  prominent. 

HISTORY.  —  Discoveries,  settlements,  colonial  wars,  dis- 
agreements of  the  Colonies  and  England,  causes  of  the 
Revolution. 

II.    Talking  and  Reading. 

TALKING.  —  Canals.    Light-houses.   The  sea.    Gulf  Stream. 

Commerce  between  America  and  Europe.  Domestic  com- 
merce. 

Occupations  of  the  West,  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
mining ;  grazing,  wheat-growing,  lumbering. 

Places  noted  for  natural  scenery. 

Colonization,  immigration. 

Reason  for  locality  of  cities. 

Prominent  cities  in  the  West,  —  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Den- 
ver, San  Francisco,  Portland,  etc. 

Prominent  cities  in  Europe,  —  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
Venice,  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  etc. 

Topics  omitted  in  previous  classes. 

Reading  to  the  class  as  time  permits  :  Alaska,  Whym- 
per;  Knocking  Round  the  Rockies ,  Ingersoll;  Among  the 


FOURTH  YEAR  OF  STUDY  239 

Sioux  of  Dakota;  The  Open  Polar  Sea,  Hayes;  Arctic 
Explorations,  Kane;  The  Family  Flight,  E.  E.  Hale.; 
Three  Vassar  Girls  Abroad,  Mrs.  Champney ;  Bodley 
Grandchildren  in  Holland,  Scudder  ;  Hans  Brinker,  Dodge  ; 
Fred  Markam  in  Russia,  Kingston  ;  Young  Folks  Abroad. 

III.    Helps. 

Wall  maps,  globes,  Sonnenschein  and  Allen's  atlas  of 
raised  maps,  Frye's  raised  maps, .  physical  charts,  printed 
schedule  of  topics,  drawing-paper,  outline-maps  on  black- 
board cloth,  review  charts,  scrap-book,  etc. 

OBJECTS.  —  Products  of  the  sea,  such  as  shells,  coral, 
whalebone,  whale's  tooth,  sea-weed,  sponges,  star-fishes, 
mollusks,  etc. 

Gold,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  ores;  minerals;  wheat; 
specimens  of  wood  ;  bark  of  the  big  trees,  etc. 

Sealskin  and  other  furs.  . 

Manufactured  articles  from  various  parts  of  Europe 
brought  by  pupils. 

PICTURES.  —  Canals,  light-houses,  marine  plants,  fishes,  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  ships. 

Gold,  copper,  and  silver  mining  (Harper's,  p.  50  ;  Maury's, 
p.  64). 

Grazing  (McNally's,  p.  64)  ;  farming  in  the  West  (Swin- 
ton's,  p.  52  ;  Harper's,  p.  52)  ;  Yosemite  (Harper's,  p.  63)  ; 
Canon  (Guyot's  New  Intermediate,  p.  50;  Harper's,  p. 
61)  ;  Yellowstone  (Harper's,  p.  60;  Swinton's,  p.  56); 
Estes  Park  ("Rocky  Mountains,"  Miss  Bird). 

Stereoscopic  pictures  of  Europe,  and  such  pictures  as  are 
found  in  Harper's,  McNally's,  Swinton's,  Maury's,  Apple- 
tons',  and  New  Eclectic  geographies,  and  in  all  juvenile  and 
most  adult  books  of  travel  referring  to  Europe. 


240  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

BOOKS  FOR  CONSULTATION.  —  Alaska,  Ball;  California, 
Nordhoffj  Greenland,  Professor  Rink;  The  Great  Frozen 
Sea,  Markham  ;  The  Polar  World,  Hartvvig ;  Upper  Yellow- 
stone, Wyndham  ;  Old  Mexico  and  Her  Lost  Provinces, 
Bishop  ;  Walks  in  London,  Hare  ;  Notes  on  England,  Mrs. 
Hawthorne  ;  English  Traits,  Emerson  ;  Notes,  on  England, 
Taine ;  Holland,  De  Amicis ;  Home  Life  in  Germany, 
Brace;  Italian  Journeys,  Howells ;  Walks  in  Rome,  Hare  5 
Russia,  Wallace  ;  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,  Du  Chaillu ; 
Seven  Spanish  Cities,  and  the  Way  to  Them,  Hale  ;  Scram- 
bles among  the  Alps,  Whymper ;  Manual  of  Commerce, 
Browne ;  Ocean  Wonders,  Damon ;  The  Ocean,  Reclus, 
Hartvvig,  and  Figuier ;  Half -Hours  Underground ;  Physical 
Geography,  Guyot ;  Mining  W^est  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
Raymond. 

Apgar's  system  of  map-drawing,  from  its  simplicity  and 
direct  help  in  drawing  outlines,  is  superior  to  any  thus  far 
examined.  (See  Swinton's  and  Warren's  Geographies.) 

The  books  given  under  "  II.  Talking  and  Reading  "  are 
especially  adapted  for  reading  to  the  class,  either  by  teacher 
or  pupil.  Those  under  "  Reading  for  Consultation  "  contain 
valuable  information  upon  the  subjects  to  be  taught.  They 
are  not  so  popular  as  the  first-named,  and  yet  many  of  them 
are  well  adapted  to  the  more  mature  pupils. 

Teachers  must  not  expect  too  much  of  their  pupils  in 
mathematical  geography.  The  subject  is  difficult  for  adult 
minds  to  comprehend.  Every  part  here  must  be  explained 
and  illustrated  over  and  over  again.  Only  simple  facts 
should  be  taught,  leaving  scientific  facts  for  the  first  class. 

A  large  number  of  subjects  are  given  in  "  II.  Talking  and 
Reading,"  in  order  that  teachers  may  select  what  seem 


FOURTH  YEAR  OF  STUDY  241 

appropriate  for  their  classes.  Probably  few  teachers  will 
find  time  to  teach  them  all.  Many  of  these  subjects  can 
be  taught  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  country 
related  thereto ;  as,  for  instance,  the  best  time  to  speak 
about  mining  for  coal  is  in  the  lessons  for  the  Middle 
States. 

Outline-maps  drawn  in  oil  upon  blackboard  cloth  are 
invaluable  helps  to  teaching  in  all  classes.  The  cloth,  all 
mounted,  in  different  sizes  and  at  different  prices,  from 
$i  to  $2,  may  be  obtained  of  the  School  Supply  Company, 
15  Bromfield  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

The  above  schedule  of  topics  can  easily  be  modified  to 
suit  individual  circumstances. 

Commerce  is  worthy  of  considerable  attention,  and  might 
be  enlarged  upon  under  the  following  subdivisions  :  — 


i.  Domestic 


2.  Foreign 


D      .  j  What? 

a.  Receipts.       <   .... 

[^  Whence? 

f  What? 
*.  Slupments.     j  Whhher? 

f  What? 
!  a.  Imports.        < 

[  Whence? 

f  What? 

b.  Exports.         \   __„  .  , 

(^  Wrhither? 


3.  Howcarriedon I  ^y  land 

1    By  water. 

When  Europe  is  studied,  comparisons  should  be  frequently 
made  under  each  topic  ;  e.g.,  under  population,  consider  the 
density  of  Belgium,  four  hundred  and  eighty-one  to  the  square 
mile,  with  that  of  Massachusetts,  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
one  to  the  square  mile.  Consider  the  size  of  London,  four 


242  METHODS  AMI;   AII>s   l\   <  ,i.o<  ,k  \l>l[  Y 

millions,  with  that  of  Pennsylvania,  four  millions.  Consider 
the  increase  in  the  United  States  during  the  last  ten  years, 
of  thirty  per  cent,  compared  with  that  of  Great  Britain  in 
the  same  period,  of  nine  per  cent.  Remember  the  United 
States  now  manufacture  more  in  value  in  a  year  than  Great 
Britain.  Comparisons  of  this  nature  should  not  be  carried 
so  far  as  to  become  tedious. 

One  country  should,  during  the  year,  be  neatly  written 
out  in  a  blank-book  by  each  member  of  the  class.  These 
books  should  be  repeatedly  examined  by  the  teacher,  and 
carefully  criticised  in  reference  to  neatness,  exactness,  and 
completeness.  This  blank-book  will  be  valuable  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  work  done  in  it  by  the  pupil  rather 
than  the  teacher. 

A  teacher  can  make  good  colored  inks  for  his  class  by 
purchasing  five-cents'  worth  of  aniline  dyes  at  the  nearest 
drug  store,  and  mixing  with  water. 

FIFTH   YEAR  OF  STUDY 
I.  Study. 

South  America,  Africa,  and  Asia,  by  full  schedule  of 
topics. 

As  time  permits,  study  details  of  one  or  more  countries, 
as  Brazil  in  South  America,  Egypt  In  Africa,  China  in 
Asia. 

Progressive  maps  of  the  grand  divisions  in  advance, 
begun  with  the  study  of  the  outline,  and  continued  as  the 
study  progresses.  Comparisons  should  be  constantly  made 
between  the  natural  features,  climate,  manners,  and  customs, 
etc.,  of  the  country  under  consideration,  and  other  countries 
already  studied  in  this  or  previous  classes. 


FIFTH   YEAR  OF  STUDY  243 

Work  of  third  class  reviewed  as  far  as  possible,  especially 
North  America  and  Kurope. 

Memory-maps  of  South  America,  Africa,  and  Asia.  (See 
physical  maps  in  Appletons',  Swinton's,  and  1  :  and 

commercial  map  in  McNally's.)  Mountain  ranges,  rivers, 
natural  divisions,  etc.,  learned  in  same  order  ;  as,  Obi,  Ycni  '  i, 
I>ena,  Arnoor,  Hoang  Ho,  Yangtse-Kiang,  etc. 

HISTORY.  —  The  conflict  between  the  English  and  French. 
The  union  of  the  Kn^li,h  Colonies.  The  war  for  inde- 
\>< -ndence.  Growth  of  slavery. 

II.  Talking  and  Beading. 

TALKING.  —  Drainage,  glaciers,  icebergs,  ocean-currents. 
Forms  of  water. 

Causes  affecting  climate. 

Our  wants,  —  food,  clothing,  shelter. 

Vegetation  (see  Peavy's  Manual  of  Georgraphy,  pp.  38 
and  68). 

Races,  forms  of  government,  religion  (taught  more  fully 
than  in  Class  Four). 

Proofs   of   the   form  of   the  earth ;   size,   latitude  and 
longitude,  meridians,  parallels,  great  and  small  circles,  equa- 
tor, poles,  prime  meridian,  standard  time,  variation  in  1< 
of  degrees  of  longitude,  zenith,  nadir. 

Motions  of  the  earth;  effect  of  the  same.  (See  Miss 
Crocker's  Notes,  p.  24.) 

Prominent  cities  in  South  America,  —  Rio  Janeiro, 
Buenos  Ayres,  Valparaiso,  Quito. 

In  Africa,  —  Cairo,  Cape  Town,  Algiers. 

In  Asia,  —  Peking,  Canton,  Tokio,  Calcutta,  Jerusalem. 

READING  to  the  class  as  time  permits  : 


244  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

A  Thousand  Miles'  Walk  across  South  America,  Bishop  ; 
On  the  Banks  of  the  Amazon,  Kingston  ;  The  Naturalists 
on  the  Amazon,  Bates  ;  Brazil  and  the  Brazilians,  Fletcher ; 
Family  Flight,  Hale  (Part  II.)  ;  Great  Thirst  Land,  Gill- 
more  ;  Boy  Travellers,  Knox  (5  vols.)  ;  Gorilla  Hunters, 
Ballantyne  ;  Rip  Van  Winkle's  Travels  in  Asia  and  Africa, 
Van  Wert ;  Child  Life  in  Japan,  Ayrton  ;  The  Wonderful 
City  of  Tokio,  Greey ;  Our  Boys  in  India,  French  ;  Our 
Young  Folks  in  Africa,  McCabe ;  China,  Japan,  India, 
Eden  ;  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  McGregor  •  Land  of  the 
White  Elephant,  Vincent ;  Rifle  and  Hound  in  Ceylon, 
Baker. 

III.    Helps. 

(See   Third  Class.) 

Blackboard  globe ;  outline-maps  of  each  grand  division 
on  blackboard  cloth ;  printed  schedules  of  topics  for  the 
pupils,  review  charts,  etc.  Reynolds's  physical  and  astro- 
nomical charts. 

OBJECTS.  —  Caoutchouc,  cinchona  bark,  tapioca,  cocoa 
from  Para,  coffee-berry,  coffee,  dye-woods,  Brazil-nuts  from 
Brazil,  etc.  Lima  beans,  native  woods,  cochineal,  cocoa, 
vanilla-beanpod,  vegetable  wax,  etc.,  from  South  America. 

Olives,  dates,  ebony,  ostrich-feathers,  ivory,  indigo,  acacia, 
red  pepper,  cloves,  gum-arabic,  etc.,  from  Africa. 

Raw  silk,  opium,  jute,  indigo,  gutta-percha,  camphor, 
gamboge,  tamarinds,  bamboo,  tea,  palm-wood,  olive-wood, 
joss-sticks,  chop-sticks,  fans,  boxes,  Chinese  and  Japanese 
ornamental  work,  etc.,  from  Asia. 

(Many  of  these  and  other  objects  will  be  brought  by  the 
pupils,  if  encouraged  by  the  teacher.) 

PICTURES.  —  Helpful  pictures  will   be    found   in    Guyofs 


FIFTH   YEAR   OF   STUDY  245 

Physical  Geography,  pp.  47,  48,  53,  56,  58,  93,  94;  in 
most  geographies,  especially  Harper's,  Svvintpn's,  Apple- 
tons',  McNally's,  Maury's,  and  New  Eclectic. 

Egypt  (Land  of  the  Pharaohs),  Boy  Travellers,  No.  4; 
People  of  Africa  (Uncivilized  Races,  Wood  ;  Baker's,  Stan- 
ley's, and  Livingstone's  works)  ;  Africa  (McCabe,  Van 
Wert ;  Stanford's  Compendium,  Africa). 

Peru  and  Amazon  (Marcoy's)  ;  Peru  (Squier). 

Brazil  (Agassiz  and  Smith). 

Northern  Coast  of  Asia  (  Voyage  of  the  Vega). 

China  (Thomson  and  Eden). 

Japan  (Knox's  Boy  Travellers,  No.  i,  and  Greey's  books)  ; 
India  (Knox's  Boy  Travellers,  No.  3,  French  and  Eden). 

Cocoa-nut  palms,  grand  pagoda,  fakirs,  howdahs,  shops, 
Taj  Mahal,  and  many  cities,  etc.,  in  Indian  Pictures. 

Asia,  general  (Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography,  — 
Asia ;  Prime's  Around  the  World ;  Wanderings  in  Four 
Continents). 

BOOKS  FOR.  CONSULTATION.  —  South  America,  Marcoy; 
Brazil,  Smith ;  Across  Patagonia,  Dixie ;  Peru,  Squier ; 
A  Thousand  Miles  up  the  Nile,  Edwards  ;  Nile  Tributaries, 
Baker  ;  Modern  Egyptians,  Lane  ;  Across  Africa,  Cameron ; 
Through  the  Dark  Continent,  Stanley  ;  Last  Journals,  Liv- 
ingstone ;  The  Heart  of  Africa,  Schweinfurth  ;  Boat  Life 
in  Egypt  and  Nubia,  Prime ;  Arabia,  Palgrave,  Taylor ; 
Japan,  Bird ;  Ten  Years'*  Travels,  Thomson ;  Land  of  the 
Veda,  Butler ;  Indian  Alps,  Lady  Pioneer ;  Voyage  of  the 
Vega,  Nordenskibld  ;  Siberia,  Atkinson  ;  Through  Persia  by 
Caravan,  Arnold. 


246  METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Practical  Suggestions. 

It  is  better  for  the  pupils  to  read  to  the  class  than  for 
the  teacher.  The  appointment  of  a  "  reading-hour "  will 
help  to  carry  into  practice  this  idea.  If  there  is  a  public 
library  accessible,  then  the  teacher  should  help  the  pupils  in 
finding  the  best  books  on  each  country.  One  of  the  most 
practical  ways  of  doing  this  is  to  give  them  the  library  num- 
bers for  the  books.  There  are  now  plenty  of  good  and 
very  interesting  books  on  the  above  grand  divisions.  Most 
of  these  books  are  beautifully  illustrated. 

If  the  teacher  will  appoint  some  day  in  the  course  of  the 
study  of  a  country  like  Asia,  when  articles  from  that  coun- 
try are  requested  to  be  brought  for  a  loan  collection,  she 
will  be  surprised  at  the  results  and  the  interest.  The  writer 
has  known  over  three  hundred  different  articles  brought  by 
a  single  class  to  illustrate  a  grand  division,  ranging  from  a 
five-cent  Japan  fan  up  to  a  three-hundred-dollar  India  shawl. 

In  some  of  the  large  cities,  illustrated  papers,  with  privi- 
lege of  selection,  are  sold  for  five  cents  each,  which  contain 
several  good  pictures  for  school  purposes.  Sometimes  a 
single  magazine  will  have  scores  of  good  available  illustra- 
tions. See  Harper's  Magazine  for  July,  1885,  and  the 
Century  for  March,  1885. 

SIXTH  YEAR  OF  STUDY 
I.    Study. 

Oceanica,  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Canada,  and  Greenland, 
by  selected  topics. 

Review  the  grand  divisions  by  full  schedule  of  topics. 
In  this  review,  progressive  maps  of  the  grand  divisions 
should  be  made  prominent. 


SIXTH   YEAR   OF  STUDY  247 

Comparisons  and  classifications  should  be  constantly 
required.  (See  Harper's  Geography,  note.  p.  75  ;  and 
Guyot's  Geographies.) 

As  far  as  possible,  study  the  world  as  a  whole,  making 
general  comparisons  of  the  different  countries  in  reference 
to  physical  features,  political  conditions,  productions,  man- 
ufactures, manners  and  customs,  commercial  relations,  etc. 

Let  the  pupil  study  the  kind,  locality,  and  extent  of 
the  mining  industries  of  each  grand  division  ;  railroads, 
education,  condition  of  women,  etc. 

As  time  permits,  study  topically  such  representative  coun- 
tries of  the  world  as  United  States,  Brazil,  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Russia,  China,  Japan,  India,  Egypt. 

Such  representative  cities  of  the  world  as  New  York, 
Boston,  London,  Paris,  Venice,  Rome,  Pekin,  Tokio, 
Benares,  Cairo,  Rio  Janeiro,  Batavia,  etc. 

Motions  of  the  earth.  Apparent  motions  of  the  sun. 
Changes  of  the  seasons.  Variation  in  the  length  of  day 
and  night.  "  Standard  Time."  Observations  in  reference 
to  all  these  subjects. 

Constant,  periodical,  and  variable  winds.  Ocean  cur- 
rents, polar  and  equatorial.  Return  currents,  —  Gulf  Stream, 
Japan  Current. 

Forms  of  water,  —  invisible  vapor,  rain,  fog,  glaciers, 
icebergs,  rivers,  etc. 

Coral  islands,  volcanoes,  earthquakes,  etc. 

HISTORY.  —  Review  history  previously  studied.  Admin- 
istrations. War  with  Mexico.  Civil  war.  Reconstruction. 


248  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

II.    Talking  and  Beading. 

TALKING.  —  Commercial  trip  round  the  world. 

Pleasure -trip  round  the  world.  Places  visited  for  scenery  ; 
for  health. 

Manners  and  customs  of  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hindoos, 
Negroes,  Indians,  Esquimaux,  French,  Germans,  Spanish, 
etc. 

Education  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Sweden, 
Russia,  China,  Japan,  India,  etc. 

Noted  buildings  in  the  world,  such  as  Taj  Mahal  in  Acra, 
India  ;  Pyramids  in  Egypt ;  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  ;  Notre  Dame 
in  Paris  ;  Parliament  Houses  in  London  ;  cathedrals  in  Milan, 
Cologne,  Salisbury,  etc. ;  Capitol  in  Washington,  etc. 

Talks  about,  and  reviews  of,  books  of  travel  read  by 
pupils. 

Railroad  routes,  railroad  centres,  steamship  routes. 

Foreign  and  domestic  commerce,  etc. 

Prominent  cities  in- the  advance:  In  Oceanica,  —  Auck- 
land, Batavia,  Honolulu,  Manilla,  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and 
Wellington. 

In  West  Indies,  —  Havana,  St.  Domingo. 

In  Mexico,  —  Mexico,  Vera  Cruz. 

In  Canada,  —  Montreal,  Ottawa,  Quebec. 

In  Greenland,  —  Lichtenfels. 

READING  to  the  class,  or  by  the  class,  as  time  permits : 
Voyage  of  the  Yacht  Sunbeam,  Brassey ;  Boys  of  Other 
Countries,  Taylor ;  Round  the  World  by  a  Boy,  Smiles  ; 
Australia,  Eden  ;  At  Home  in  Fiji,  Cumming ;  Through 
and  Through  the  Tropics,  Vincent ;  Island  Life,  Wallace ; 
Adventures  of  the  Young  Naturalist,  Gillmore  ;  Camps  in 


SIXTH    YEAR    OF    STUDY  249 

the  Caribbees,  Ober ;  A  Geographical  Reader,  Johonnot ; 
Around  the  World,  Prime;  Island  of  Fire  (Iceland),  Head- 
ley  ;  Arctic  Adventures,  Sargent ;  physical  geographies,  — 
Guyot,  Johnson,  Maury,  Ansted,  etc. ;  The  Subterranean 
World,  Aerial  World,  Polar  World,  Hartwig ;  The  Bottom 
of  the  Sea,  Sonrel ;  Countries  of  the  World,  Brown  ;  Ocean 
Wonders,  Damon ;  Ice-Pack  and  Tundra,  Gilder,  etc. 

0 

III.    Helps. 

(See  Previous  Classes.) 

Globes  of  various  kinds,  such  as  hemisphere  globes,  black- 
board globes,  large  and  small  globes,  magnetic  globes,  Jos- 
lin's  "  Solar  Telluric  Globe  "  (globe  mounted  at  an  angle 
of  forty-one  and  one-half  degrees).  Maps  of  every  variety, 
such  as  simple  outline-maps  of  the  grand  divisions,  drawn 
on  one  piece  of  manilla  paper,  upon  same  scale,  to  show 
comparative  size  ;  outline-maps  of  the  grand  divisions  on 
blackboard  cloth ;  Guyot's  large  physical  maps  ;  same,  small 
size,  on  cardboard ;  Warren's  physical  maps,  with  Apgar's 
method  of  map-drawing ;  Hughes's  political  maps ;  Son- 
nenschein  and  Allen's  atlas,  containing  thirty-one  raised 
maps  ;  Frye's  relief  maps. 

Reynolds's  physical  and  astronomical  charts ;  review 
charts,  chart  giving  comparative  heights  of  mountains ; 
picture  album,  scrap-book ;  printed  schedules  of  topics ; 
enamelled  colored  crayons ;  two  picture- frames,  large  and 
small,  with  movable  board  for  showing  pictures  to  pupils. 
School  solar  camera  (invented  and  made  by  Charles  F. 
Adams,  Normal  School,  Worcester,  Mass.). 

OBJECTS.  —  Coral,  jute,  manilla-hemp,  pumice-stone,  san- 
dal-wood, shells,  spices,  etc.,  from  Oceanica. 


250  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Banana,  citron,  cocoa-nut,  hard  woods,  ginger,  lemons, 
logwood,  pineapple,  sugar-cane,  tamarinds,  etc.,  from  the 
West  Indies. 

Cochineal,  jalap,  mahogany,  quicksilver,  sarsaparilla,  va- 
nilla, etc.,  from  Mexico. 

Cannel-coal,  codfish,  gypsum,  various  woods,  etc.,  from 
Canada. 

Cryolite,  eider-down,  seal's  skin,  spermaceti,  whalebone, 
whale's  tooth,  etc.,  from  Greenland. 

Alum,  brass,  cinnabar,  coal,  cocoa-nut  and  husk,  coke, 
coral,  cotton-plant,  flint,  furs,  glue,  graphite,  hops,  leather, 
brimstone,  marble,  mica,  mercury,  nickel ;  ores  such  as 
copper,  gold,  iron,  lead,  silver,  zinc  ;  parchment,  pewter, 
quartz,  rice,  rock-salt,  sandstone,  slate,  soda,  sponges,  starch, 
sugar,  vellum,  woods,  wool,  various  kinds  of  manufactured 
articles  from  the  vicinity  of  the  school,  etc.,  —  to  represent 
North  America. 

Allspice,  Brazilian  diamonds,  Brazil-nuts,  caoutchouc, 
cloves,  coffee-berry,  cocoa-nut,  indigo,  Lima  bean,  mahogany, 
palm-nuts,  tapioca,  vanilla-bean,  vegetable-ivory-nut,  etc.,  to 
represent  South  America. 

Cloves,  dates,  ebony,  gums,  ivory,  olives,  ostrich-feathers, 
red-pepper,  spices,  etc.,  to  represent  Africa. 

Assafoetida,  attar  of  roses,  bamboo,  Chinese  book,  chop- 
sticks, camel's-hair  scarf  or  shawl,  camphor,  dates,  fans, 
ginger-root,  gum-arabic,  gutta-percha,  idols,  India-ink,  lac, 
lacquered  ware,  malachite,  Mocha  coffee,  manilla-hemp, 
musk-sac,  opium,  olive-wood,  porcelain,  platinum,  preserved 
ginger,  raw  silk,  rice-paper,  rhubarb,  sago,  sandal-wood, 
shellac,  tea,  teak- wood,  tortoise-shell,  etc.,  to  represent  Asia. 

Agate,  alabaster,  amber,  borax,  chalk,  citron,  coral,  cork, 


SIXTH   YEAR   OF   STUDY  251 

eider-down,  emery,  ermine,  hemp,  lapis  lazuli,  lava,  lemons, 
licorice,  limes,  linen,  macaroni,  madder,  model  of  Swiss 
cottage,  mosaics,  nutgalls,  opal,  oranges,  otter,  prunes, 
raisins,  sable,  sponges,  sulphur,  tin,  topaz,  toys,  Venetian 
glass,  various  kinds  of  manufactured  articles,  etc.,  to  repre- 
sent Europe. 

(Pupils,  after  a  little  encouragement,  will  bring  to  the 
school  a  large  proportion  of  these  articles  as  a  "  loan  col- 
lection." Most  of  the  articles  named  above,  and  many 
others,  have  been  thus  exhibited  by  the  different  classes  in 
the  Lewis  School  in  a  single  year.) 

PICTURES. —  (See  previous  classes.) 

Helpful  pictures  will  be  found  in  all  the  geographies  ; 
in  Harper's  publications  of  travel  ;  in  Harper's  Magazine 
and  Weekly ;  in  TJie  Century,  etc. 

For  pictures  of  Oceanica,  see  New  Guinea  by  D'Albertis  ; 
New  Zealand,  by  Taine ;  The  Malay  Archipelago,  by 
Wallace  ;  etc. 

Mexico :  See  Mexico  To-day,  by  Brocklehurst ;  Old 
Mexico,  by  Bishop  ;  Summerland  Sketches,  by  Oswald  ;  etc. 

West  Indies  :  See  Santa  Domingo,  by  Hazard ;  Camps 
in  the  Caribbees,  by  Ober. 

Greenland  :  See  Rink's  book  on  Greenland ' ;  The  Coun- 
tries of  the  World,  Brown,  Vol.  I. 

In  addition  to  books  above  :  North  America,  —  See  Pic- 
turesque America  ;  America  Illustrated,  by  Williams  ;  The 
Great  South,  by  Ed.  King;  The  White  Hills,  by  Thomas 
Starr  King  ;  Arctic.  Researches,  by  Hall ;  Polar  Reconnais- 
sance, by  Markham  ;  History  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
road, by  Smalley ;  Arctic  Explorations,  by  Kane ;  Alaska^ 
by  Whymper,  etc. 


252  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

South  America :  See  South  America,  by  Marcoy,  2  vols. ; 
Brazil,  by  Fletcher,  by  Smith,  by  Agassiz ;  Peru,  by  Squier ; 
Venezuela,  by  Paez,  etc. 

Africa  :  See  Land  of  the  Pharaohs,  by  Manning ;  Pyra- 
mids, Temples,  and  Tombs,  by  Belzoni ;  Thebes,  by  Abney  ; 
Nile  Gleanings,  by  Stuart ;  Family  Flight  through  Egypt 
and  Syria,  by  Hale ;  Algeria,  by  Herbert ;  Our  Young 
Folks  in  Africa,  by  McCabe  ;  Boy  Travellers,  Parts  IV.  and 
V.,  by  Knox ;  all  of  Baker's  and  Stanley's  works,  etc. 

Asia :  See  Little  People  of  Asia,  by  Miller ;  China  and 
its  People,  by  Thomson ;  Indian  Alps,  by  a  Lady  Pioneer ; 
Indian  Pictures,  Urwick ;  Pathways  of  Palestine,  by  Tries- 
tram  ;  Those  Holy  Hills,  by  Manning  ;  India  and  its  Native 
Princes,  by  Rousselet ;  Japan  and  the  Japanese,  by  Humbert ; 
Through  Siberia,  by  Lansdell ;  Voyage  of  tJie  Jeannette,  by 
Mrs.  DeLong  ;  The  Voyage  of  the  Vega,  by  Nordenskiold,  etc. 

Europe  :  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,  Du  Chaillu  ;  In  the 
East,  Mrs.  Brassey ;  Scrambles  among  the  Alps,  Whymper ; 
English  Pictures,  Manning  ;  French  Pictures,  Green  ;  Italian 
Pictures,  Manning ;  Spanish  Pictures,  Manning ;  Spain, 
Davillier ;  Swiss  Pictures,  Manning ;  Spanish  Vistas,  La- 
throp ;  Spain,  Dore"  ;  Pyrenees,  Dor£ ;  Scottish  Pictures, 
Manning ;  Land  of  Lome,  Through  Cyprus,  Thomson ; 
Rome,  Hall,  Taine,  Wey. 

For  the  world  in  general :  See  Le  Tour  du  Monde. 

BOOKS  FOR  CONSULTATION.  —  Schwatka's  Search,  Gilder ; 
High  Latitudes,  Lord  Dufferin ;  Notes  on  the  Northern 
Atlantic,  Brown  ;  Hindoos  as  They  are,  Bose  ;  Pen  Pictures 
of  Europe,  Peakes ;  To  the  Cape  for  Diamonds,  Travels 
round  the  World,  Coffin,  Seward ;  Malay  Archipelago,  Wal- 
lace ;  Andes  and  Amazon,  Orton ;  Voyage  of  Challenger, 


SIXTH   YEAR  OF  STUDY  253 

Thomson ;  Nile  Gleanings,  Stuart ;  On  the  Desert,  Field  ; 
Corea,  Griffis  ;  East  of  the  Jordan,  Merrill ;  Turkestan, 
Schuyler ;  Across  America  and  Asia,  Pumpelly ;  A  Flight 
to  Mexico,  Aubertin  ;  Explorations  and  Discoveries,  Jones  ; 
The  Indian  Empire,  Hunter  ;  Cuban  Sketches,  Steele  ;  The 
West,  1880,  Porter;  Due  West,  Ballou  ;  Wild  Tribes  of 
the  Soudan,  James ;  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,  Miss 
Crocker;  Comparative  Geography,  Ritter ;  Physiography, 
Huxley ;  Forms  of  Water,  Tyndall ;  Man  and  Nature, 
Marsh ;  The  Ocean,  Tides,  Currents,  Jordan ;  Uncivilized 
Races,  Wood  ;  Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea,  Simmonds  ; 
The  Surface  Zones  of  the  Globe,  Johnston ;  The  Earth, 
Reclus  ;  Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel  (6  vols.), 
Stanford ;  Mission  of  the  North- American  People,  Gilpin ; 
Journal  of  the  American,  and  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  ;  Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 

A  more  complete  list  of  books  will  be  found  in  Chap.  XX. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

The  progressive  map  in  this  class  should  be  made  entirely 
with  ink.  Do  not  allow  the  class  to  do  careless  work  ;  at  the 
same  time  do 'not  spend  too  much  time  on  perfection  of 
outline,  or  on  shading  the  mountains  or  coast-line,  so  as  to 
resemble  too  exactly  the  book.  The  printed  outlines  pub- 
lished by  Heath  &  Co.,  Bcfston,  save  to  this  class  much  time, 
and  should  be  used  freely. 

Allow  this  class  to  use  colored  inks ;  red  for  the  produc- 
tions, blue  for  the  animals,  etc.  By  means  of  arrows,  lines, 
and  various  marks,  indicate  upon  these  progressive  maps  the 
prevailing  winds,  currents,  countries,  east  and  west,  important 
parallels  and  meridians,  time,  voyages,  etc. 


254 


METHODS  AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


In  this  class  certainly,  if  not  earlier  in  the  course,  a  cabi- 
net should  be  begun  to  illustrate  geography.  If  the  first 
season  only  six  specimens  are  brought  together  to  illustrate 
each  grand  division,  a  good  and  encouraging  commence- 
ment has  been  made.  These  six,  carefully  kept  till  the  next 
class  appears,  will  soon  multiply  to  twenty-five  apiece.  In 
several  schools  in  and  near  Boston,  valuable  collections  have 
grown  out  of  such  small  beginnings. 

Comparisons  should  frequently  be  called  for  in  this  review 
recitation  work.  Children  of  this  age  are  delighted  with 
them.  They  should  be  made  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  be- 
tween not  only  countries,  but  rivers,  mountains,  people,  and 
climates  ;  as,  for  example, 


CHINESE  WOMEN. 

Small  in  size. 

Deformed  feet. 

Never  educated. 

Kept  in  seclusion, 

Looked  upon  as  slaves. 

Daughters  are  considered  burdens, 

and  of* little  value. 
Have  to  work  very  hard. 
Wear  trousers  like  the  men,  etc. 


AMERICAN  WOMEN. 

Medium  size. 
Natural  feet. 
Usually  educated. 
Allowed  to  go  into  public. 
Looked  upon  as  helpmeets. 
Daughters  treated  just  the  same 

as  sons. 

Have  hard  work  done  for  them. 
Wear  skirts  and  dresses,  etc. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NOETH  AMERICA 


THE  simplicity  and  the  grandeur  of  North  America,  the  extent  of 
the  spaces  over  which  it  rules,  seem  to  have  prepared  it  to  become 
the  abode  of  the  most  vast  and  powerful  association  of  men  that  has 
ever  existed  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  —  A.  Guyot. 

To  understand  this  simple  grandeur  is  not  an  extravagance,  but  a 
matter-of-fact  duty.  —  The  Author. 

AMERICA  is  another  name  for  Opportunity.  Our  whole  history 
appears  like  a  last  effort  of  the  Divine  Providence  in  behalf  of  the 
human  race.  — Emerson* 


BOOKS    FOR    CONSULTATION 


BIRD'S  LIFE  IN  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 

BODDAM-WHETHAM'S  WESTERN  WANDERINGS. 

BISHOP'S  FOUR  MONTHS  IN  A  SNEAK-BOX. 

BALL'S  ALASKA. 

GILPIN'S  MISSION  OF  THE  NORTH-AMERICAN  PEOPLE. 

HEART  OF  THE  ALLEGHANIES. 

INGERSOLL'S  KNOCKING  'ROUND  THE  ROCKIES. 

KING'S  WHITE  HILLS. 

LAWSON'S  COAST-LINES. 

MARSHALL'S  THROUGH  AMERICA/' 

PIERREPONT'S  FIFTH  AVENUE  TO  ALASKA. 

POWELL'S  REPORTS. 

STANLEY'S  YELLOWSTONE. 

STANFORD'S  COMPENDIUM  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

ZIGZAG  JOURNEY  TO  THE  OCCIDENT. 

256 


CHAPTER   XIII 

WHAT  TO  TEACH   ON  NORTH  AMERICA 

DIRECTIONS  —  BRIEF  HISTORY  —  POSITION  —  SIZE — A  TRIP  AROUND  THE  COAST  — 
SURFACE  —  DIVISIONS  —  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS  —  ATLANTIC  HIGHLANDS  —  "  ON 
HORSEBACK"  —  MOUNTAINS  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA — COMPARISONS  —  PLAINS  — 
DRAINAGE  —  NAMES  OF  RIVERS  —  SYSTEMS  —  THE  GREAT  LAKES  —  DESCRIPTION 
OF  FOUR  RIVERS  —  MISSISSIPPI  —  ST.  LAWRENCE  —  COMPARISONS  —  COLUMBIA 
K1VER  —  COLORADO  —  ON  THE  FRAZER 

[Directions  tO  the  teacher.  — The  matter  published  in  this  and  the 
two  following  chapters  has  been  given  to  several  classes,  by  about  one  hour's  work 
each  day  for  five  or  six  weeks,  and  these  classes  examined  at  the  end  of  the  time. 
The  average  of  the  examination  has  varied  from  eighty  to  eighty-seven  per  cent. 
The  reason  so  long  a  time  has  been  taken,  is  because  each  year  this  happened  to  be 
the  continent  taken  up  first  by  the  topical  method;  and  the  class  wrote  out  the  matter, 
as  we  proceeded,  in  large  blank-books.  In  the  topical  method  very  little  time  is  given 
directly  to  location  and  names.  These  are  thoroughly  learned  by  association.  About 
half  of  what  is  here  given  on  North  Ameiica  will  be  acquired  with  sufficient  accuracy 
by  reading  or  telling  to  the  class  once  or  twice.  The  parts  which  may  be  appropriately 
read  are  indicated  by  smaller  type.] 

I.    BRIEF  HISTORY  * 

THE  New  World  \*2&  discovered  in  1492,  at  San  Salva- 
dor, by  Columbus,  an  Italian,  sailing  under  the  Spanish 
flag ;  but  it  was  named  after  his  friend,  Amerigo  Vespucci. 

The  Continent  of  North  America  was  first  discovered  at 
Labrador,  by  an  Englishman,  named  John  Cabot. 

De  Soto  was  the  first  to  discover  the  Mississippi  River ; 
Cartier,  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  and  Balboa,  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  Red  Man  owned  and  occupied  the  whole   country 

1  Nos*  I.  and  II  may  be  dictated  to  the  pupils,  or  written  on  the  board.  In  younger 
classes  I.  and  II.  should  be  taken  up  at  the  end.  of  North  America.' 

'  "'257 


258  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

when  these  discoveries  were  made.  These  Indians  were 
divided  into  two  classes,  - —  those  of  the  North,  and  those  of 
the  South.  The  Southern  Indians,  occupying  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  were  highly  civilized,  and  entirely  different 
from  the  Indians  who  lived  in  the  present  limits  of  the 
United  States.  History  affords  no  sadder  story,  than  the 
record  of  their  cruel  conquest  by  Cortez. 

Gradually  the  Spaniards  settled  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  new  country  ;  the  English  along  the  Atlantic  Coast ;  the 
French  about  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Lakes,  and  the  Upper 
Mississippi. 

Each  claimed  land  indefinitely  from  their  settlements,  hence 
their  claims  overlapped.  The  Spanish  nation  decreased  in 
power,  and  soon  only  occupied  St.  Augustine  and  Santa  Fe\ 

The  French  and  English  increased  in  numbers  and 
wealth.  They  quarrelled  about  the  land  ;  war  was  declared  ; 
the  English  were  victorious,  driving  out  the  French,  and 
getting  possession  of  all  the  land  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
excepting  Florida. 

Then  came — 1775 — tne  Revolution,  and,  later,  inde- 
pendence, and  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  of  the 
United  States.  Eighty  years  of  growth  and  prosperity  fol- 
lowed. Then  came  the  secession  of  the  Slave  States,  and 
the  civil  war,  which  destroyed  slavery,  and  restored  the 
Union.  The  three  heroes  of  this  history  are  Washington, 
Lincoln,  and  Grant. ' 

II.    STRIKING  CHARACTERISTICS 

North  America  is  the  larger  grand  division  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere.  It  is  a  new  country.  It  is  the  land  of  plains, 
in  contrast  to  the  continents  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
which  are  the  lands  of  plateaus. 


POSITION  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  259 

North  America  is  noted  for  its  great  fresh-water  lakes,  its 
extensive  river -s,  unsurpassed  falls,  valleys,  canons,  geysers, 
great  prairies,  valuable  timber-land,  wide  expanse  of  remark- 
able fertility,  unlimited  extent  of  its  grain-fields,  variety  and 
abundance  of  its  precious  and  useful  metals,  and  the  great 
area  of  its  coal-fields^ 

It  is  also  noted  for  its  rapid  growth. in  population  and 
wealth ;  for  ^surpassing  all  other  countries  in  the  extent  of 
its  railroads  and  telegraphs ;  for  being  first  in  the  amount 
of  its  manufactures  and  industrial  products. 

In  a  still  more  remarkable  degree  it  is  noted  for  the 
harmonious  commingling  of  so  many  widely  different  nation- 
alities, -/as  the  land  Q{  freedom  in  thought  and  speech  ;  free 
schools,  free  press,  and  perfect  religious  toleration. 

III.    POSITION 

If  a  person  looks  down  upon  a  globe  placed  on  the  floor, 
he  sees  the  outlines  of  the  grand  divisions  stretching  away 
from  the  North  Pole,  arranged  in  three  groups.  In  like 
manner,  a  person  looking  from  a  great  height,  as,  for 
instance,  the  North  Star,  upon  the  earth,  would  see  the  land- 
masses  grouped  in  three  pairs,  North  and  South  America 
forming  one  of  the  pairs.  (See  globe.)  The  two  grand 
divisions  stretch  from  pole  to  pole  (9,000  miles).  North 
America  lies  opposite  the  great  land-masses  of  the  Old  World. 

[Consult  the  maps  in  your  text-books,  and  learn  in  what  ZOU6S  and  hemi- 
spheres it  is,  its  direction  from  Europe,  South  America,  etc.] 

Most  of  the  land  in  North  America  lies  between  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  Arctic  Circle. 

In  Latitude  North  America  extends  from  about  8°  N«, 
which  is  near  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  to  Cape  Washington, 


260  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

84°  N.,  the  northern  point  of  Greenland,  which  point  was 
seen  and  nearly  reached  by  Messrs.  Lockwood  and  Brainard 
of  Greely's  expedition,  1882.  (See  Three  Years  of  Arctic 
Service,  vol.  i.  p.  335.) 

(  In  respect  to  Longitude  North  America  extends  from 
>4°  W.,  found  in  the  eastern  point  of  Iceland,  as  far  west  as 
one  can  go,  180°  W.,  and  then  turning  east,  to  the  most 
distant  Aleutian  Islands ;  almost  half  way  round  the  world, 
if  measured  on  the  Arctic  Circle. 

[The  longitudinal  centre  of  the  United  States  is  said  to 
be  two  hundred  miles  west  of  San  Francisco.  Can  this  be 
true,  on  account  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  ?] 

[A  progressive  map  of  North  America  should  now  be  commenced  according  to 
the  directions  given  in  chap.  vii.  To  save  time,  and  to  help  the  pupils  make  a  better- 
looking  map,  supply  them  with  the  cheap  progressive  outline-maps,  published  by 
Heath  &  Co.,  Boston.] 

f  The  shape  of  North  America,  as  seen  on  the  map,  is 
triangular,  like  South  America  and  Africa,  the  apex  pointing 
southward ;  the  widest  part  toward  the  north.  It  has 
greater  diversity  of  form  than  the  other  triangular  grand 
divisions.  There  are  several  inland  and  bordering  seas. 
The  mountain  systems  are  more  varied]  All  this  makes  it 
better  fitted  for  the  use  of  man. 

Comparisons. 

The  Arctic  and  Atlantic  coasts  are  nearly  equal ;  each 
has  one  great,  and  many  small,  indentations  :  Hudson  Bay 
on  the  north,  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south,  peninsulas  of 
Alaska  and  California  on  the  west,  and  Labrador  and  Florida 
on  the  east.  The  peninsula  of  Florida  points  south,  and 
Yucatan  points  north. 


Fig.  57.—  The  Grand  Divisions  drawn  01 


?  same  Scale,  to  show  Comparative  Size. 


SIZE— A   TRIP  26l 

[Make  other  similar  comparisons.] 

The  coast-line  of  North  America  is  the  most  irregular  of 
the  triangular  grand  divisions.  Its  numerous  border-waters, 
great  inland  rivers,  and  fresh-water  lakes,  give  it  great  com- 
mercial advantages  over  South  America  or  Africa. 

Size. 

North  America,  as  seen  from  the  chart  of  comparative 
sizes,  isf  third  in  extent  of  the  grand  divisions.}  It  is  larger 
than  South  America,  more  than  twice  as  large  as  Europe,  and 
more  than  half  as  large  as  Asia.  (See  Fig.  5  7  on  next  page.) 

It  is  five  thousand  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  about 
three  thousand  miles  in  width  on  the  5Oth  parallel.  North 
America  contains  about  eight  million  five  hundred  thousand 
square  miles,  which  equals  one- sixth  of  all  the  land  in  the 
world. 

Alaska  equals  in  size  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and  north  of  Alabama.  [This  matter  of  size  is 
easily  remembered  by  writing  the  names  of  countries  of 
equal  size  over  the  States  and  sections  with  which  the 
comparison  is  made,  as  given  in  Fig.  22,  p.  141.] 

A  Trip  Around  the  Coast.  * 

(In  Commodore  B 's  private  yacht.) 

[Length  of  coastline  of  North  America  is  24,500  miles;  of  South  America,  15,700 
miles;  of  Africa,  16,200  miles.] 

Eastern  coast  of  Greenland  is  ice-bound  and  inaccessible. 
Western   coast   of  Greenland    high,    steep,   rocky,    islands, 

fjords,  icebergs. 
Hudson  Bay  contains  many  shoals  and  reefs.     There  is  ice 

there  a  greater  part  of  the  year. 

1  The  pupils  should  have  their  books  open  to  the  map  of  North  America,  and  the 
teacher  or  a  pupil  write  the  facts  on  the  blackboard. 


262  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Labrador  is  rocky  and  desolate. 

Newfoundland  contains  deep  bays  and  inlets  like  Scotland. 
The  coast  is  often  hidden  by  fogs. 

Bay  of  Fundy,  noted  for  its  high  tides. 

Maine  coast  is  high  and  rocky. 

The  northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  noted  for  good 
harbors,  such  as  Portland,  Boston,  New  York,  etc. 

Farther  south  :  coast  low,  extensive  swamps,  poor  harbors. 

Carolinas  have  low  coast,  and  low,  sandy  islands  on  which 
grow  sea-island  cotton. 

Florida :  low  and  sandy ;  navigation  round  about  quite  dan- 
gerous, owing  to  the  numerous  currents,  banks,  and 
coral  reefs. 

Mississippi  delta :  a  low  and  unhealthy  swamp,  covered 
with  reeds,  and  affording  shelter  to  numerous  alli- 
gators. 

Texas  is  lined  with  long,  narrow  islands,  which  form  many 
large  bays  and  lagoons. 

Mexico  has  a  low,  flat,  and  sandy  coast,  with  no  good  har- 
bors. The  shore  is  unapproachable  during  the  preva- 
lence of  Northers.  The  lofty  mountains  west  of  Vera 
Cruz  are  seen  many  leagues  seaward, 

Balize*  is  skirted  with  coral  rocks,  on  which  cocoanut-trees 
grow  in  abundance. 

Central  America  produces  on  her  eastern  shores  tortoise- 
shell  of  the  best  quality  :  this  part  is  usually  called 
"  Mosquito  Coast."  The  western  shores  of  Central 
America  and  Mexico  are  generally  low,  but  diversi- 
fied somewhat  with  spurs  of  the  mountains  running 
down  towards  the  sea.  Good  harbors  abound, 
Acapulco  being  one  of  the  best. 


SURFACE  OF  NOu/li   AMERICA  263 

California  has  a  dangerous,  rock-bound  coast.  The  Coast 
Range  is  usually  visible  from  vessels  sailing  north  or 
south  to,  or  from,  the  Golden  Gate. 

Alaska :  southern  part  has  rocky  and  bold  shores,  with  high, 
snow-capped  mountains  visible ;  but  north  and  east 
of  Behring  Strait  the  coast  is  low  and  swampy. 

The  interior  of  the  United  States  is  thus  seen  to 
be  easily  accessible  to  persons  approaching  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  but  to  be  shut  out  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  country  has  always  had  its  doors  wide 
open,  politically  and  physically,  for  immigrants. 

IV.  SURFACE 

Both  North  and  South  America  are  the  continents  of 
plains.  The  Old  World  is  the  continent  of  mountains  and 
plateaus.  The  plains  occupy  the  greater  and  better  part 
of  North  America.  The  general  elevation  of  the  plains  is 
favorable  to  man.  A  large  portion  of  the  fertile  soil  lies  be- 
tween five  hundred  and  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  sea-level. 

[Surface  shown  by  looking  at  the  different  wall-maps  hanging  about 
the  room,  or  by  the  Atlas  of  raised  maps,  or  by  the  sand  map  or 
putty  map  prepared  beforehand  by  the  teacher.  See  p.  105.] 

In  looking  at  any  of  these  maps,  it  is  easily  seen  that  the 
mountain  ranges  run  nearly  north  and  south.  In  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere  they  run  —  [Children  look  and  tell.] 

The  Surface  of  North  America  is  conveniently  divided, 
for  the  purpose  of  study,  into  four  parts :  — 

The  Pacific  Highlands, 

The  Central  Plain, 

The  Atlantic  Highlands, 

The  Atlantic  Plain. 


264         METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

/  The  highest  and  longest  range  of  mountains  is  near  the 
western  coast.  It  is  often  called  the  main  axis.  [Look  on 
the  map,  and  learn  its  name.] 

The  next  range  in  importance  is  near  the  eastern  coast. 
[What  name?] 

The  Central  Plain,  shaped  like  the  inside  of  a  trough  or 
bath-tub,  lies  between  the  two  highlands. 

The  Atlantic  Plain,  still  farther  east,  is  situated  between 
what  mountains  and  what  ocean  ? 

[From  the  various  maps  the  teacher  asks  the  pupils  to  learn  the  extent  and  direction 
of  these  different  highlands  and  plains.] 

THE    HIGHLANDS,    OR    MOUNTAINS 

The  Pacific  Highlands  may  be  divided  into  an  inner 
and  an  outer  system.  These,  in  turn,  may  be  sub-divided 
into  the 

f  Rocky  Mountains, 

I  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau  (a  part  of  which  is  called  the  Great  Basin), 
Inner.  <  Mexican  Plateau, 

Cascade  Range, 
I  Sierra  Navada. 

Outer.  |  Pacific  Slope,  called  in  California  the  Coast  Range. 

These  mountains  are  the  eastern  edge  of  a  great  tableland, 
varying  in  width  from  four  hundred  to  nine  hundred  miles. 
[Pupils  notice  where  widest.]  The  Rocky  Mountains  may 
be  called  the  Primary  Cordilleras. ,  The  Secondary  Cordilleras 
westward  consist  of  the  outer  system,  extending  northward, 
even  to  the  peninusula  of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Isles, 
which  form  a  ring  of  stepping-stones  between  North  America 
and  Asia. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  contain  many  of  the  highest  peaks 
in  the  country,  such  as  Long's  Peak,  named  after  Col.  Long, 


THE   ROCKY  MOUNTAINS  265 

who  made  an  expedition  to  this  section  in  1819-20;  Pike's 
Peak,  a  hundred  miles  south,  named  after  Major  Pike. 

In  the  winter  cf  1803  Major  Pike  made  an  effort  to  reach 
the  summit,  but  was  obliged  to  turn  back,  sadly  remarking, 
"  Nothing  but  a  bird  could  reach  its  snowy  summit."  Now 
ladies  and  children  ride  on  horseback  to  the  top ;  and  the 
United-States  Signal  Bureau  has  a  station  there,  in  which 
men  live  the  year  round.  Both  of  these  peaks  can  be  seen 
in  a  clear  day  from  Denver. 

At  the  foot  of  these  mountains,  in  Colorado,  are  several 
beautiful  basins,  or  very  broad  valleys,  called  in  Western 
language  pares.  The  most  beautiful,  near  Long's  Peak,  is 
called  Estes  Pare.  [See  picture  and  description  in  Miss 
Bird's  book,  The  Rocky  Mountains.  For  a  complete  de- 
scription of  these  pares,  and  the  whole  area  of  the  Pacific 
Highlands,  consult  Mission  of  the  North-American  People 
by  Gilpin,  ex-governor  of  Colorado.] 

[Read  selections  of  Miss  Bird's  ascent  of  Long's  Peak  from  her  book,  Life  in  the 
Reeky  Mountains^  p.  97,  and  Codman's  ascent  of  Pike's  Peak  given  in  The  Round 
Trip,  p.  297.] 

Along  the  4Oth  parallel,  twenty-five  peaks  of  this  range 
exceed  fourteen  thousand  feet  in  height.  At  the  extreme 
ends  of  the  range,  rise  still  higher  such  peaks  as  the  volca- 
noes of  St.  Elias  on  the  north,  in  Alaska,  and  Popocatepetl, 
on  the  south  (nearly  three  miles  and  a  half  above  the  level 
of  the  sea).  The  latter,  meaning  the  smoking  mountain,  is 
constantly  seen  by  the  children  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and 
called  by  them  "Popo." 

[For  interesting  accounts  of  ascents  of  this  remarkable  volcano,  see  Adventures 
of  Rob  Rcy  by  J.  Grout,  published  by  the  World  Publishing  House,  p.  258;  or,  better, 
Ober's  Travels  in  Mexico^  p.  373.  For  a  good  picture,  see  Harper's  Geography, 
P-  7*-] 


266  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Atlantic  Highlands  are  far  inferior  in  height, 
(grandeur,  and  extent,  to  the  Pacific  Highlands. 

Confronting  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  a  distance  of  some 
twelve  hundred  to  fourteen  hundred  miles,  these  richly 
wooded  ranges,  often  called  when  taken  together  "  the 
Appalachian  Range,"  form  the  eastern  rim  of  the  great 
basin  of  the  Mississippi. 

Beginning  at  the  south,  the  most  important  ranges  named 
in  order  are  the  following  :  — 

I.  Cumberland.  2.  Alleghany.        3.  Blue  Ridge. 

4.  Catskill.  5.  Adirondacks. 

6.  Taconic.  7    Hoosac. 

8.  Green.  9.  White.  10.  Mountains  of  Maine, 

n.  Wotchish  in  Canada. 

[Examine  map,  learn  location,  and  why  the  names  were  thus  arranged  in  five  lines 
in  the  above  list  ] 

The  Alleghany  may  be  remembered  for  its  rich  iron  and 
coal  mines  ;  the  Blue  Ridge,  for  the  Natural  Bridge  (picture 
in  Guyot's  Common  School,  p.  in,  and  Maury's,  p.  40)  ; 
the  Adirondacks,  for  the  great  number  of  small  lakes  lying 
among  the  mountains ;  the  Hoosac,  for  its  tunnel ;  the 
Green,  for  the  beautiful  sugar-maple  so  abundant  in  that 
region,  and  for  the  marble  quarries ;  the  White,  for  its 
grand  mountain  scenery,  giving  it  the  name  of "  the  Alps 
of  America." 

Mount  Washington  is  the  highest  among  the  White  Moun- 
tains. [A  mile  and  a  quarter  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
How  many  Washingtons  to  equal  St.  Elias?]  But  Mitchell's 
or  Clingman's  Peak  in  North  Carolina  is  now  known  to  be 
from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet  higher  than  Mount 
Washington.  The  railroad  up  the  latter  mountain  carries 


THE  MOUNTAINS   OF  NORTH   AMERICA  267 

every  summer,  in  perfect  safety,  thousands  of  travellers  to 
the  summit  of  this  peak,  on  which  stands  a  commodious 
hotel  called  the  Summit  House.  Parties  frequently  leave 
Boston  at  7  o'clock  P.M.,  ride  in  a  "  sleeper,"  reach  the  top 
of  Mount  Washington  early  the  next  morning,  spend  several 
hours  "among  the  clouds,"  and  return  to  Boston  in  the 
afternoon  and  evening.  From  the  town  of  Jefferson  a 
splendid  view  of  the  high  mountains  on  each  side  of  Wash- 
ington, called  the  "  Presidential  Range,"  is  obtained.  [See 
pictures  in  Harper's,  Swin ton's,  and  Warren's.] 

Charles  D.  Warner  in  his  article  "  On  Horseback,"  in  the 
August  Atlantic,  1885,  says  in  reference  to  the  Roan  Moun- 
tains, a  part  of  the  Black  Mountains,  in  the  north-western 
part  of  North  Carolina  :  — 

"The  surface  of  Roan  is  uneven, and  has  no  culminating  peak  like 
Mount  Washington.  The  surface  of  the  mountains  is  pebbly,  but 
few* rocks  crop  out ;  no  ledges  of  any  size  are  seen  except  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  hotel,  and  the  mountains  lack  that  savage,  unsubdu- 
able  aspect  which  the  White  Hills  of  New  Hampshire  have.  It  was 
difficult  to  realize  that  we  were  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the«  sea.  These  mountains  are  tree-covered.  They  get  the  name 
Black  from  the  balsams  which  cover  the  summits.  The  black  bal- 
sam is  neither  a  cheerful  nor  picturesque  tree.  The  naked  granite 
rocks  in  sun  and  shower  are  more  cheerful ;  but,  to  many,  this  clothing 
of  verdure  .is  most  restful  and  pleasing.  The  rock  here  is  a  sort  of 
sand  or  pudding  stone.  There  are  none  of  the  great  gorges  and 
awful  abysses  of  the  White  Mountains,  few  precipices  and  jutting 
crags.  Mica  and  iron  are  taken  out." 

i 

.  Mountains  of  North  Carolina.  —  Alleghany  means  "endless." 
The  name  Appalachian  was  first  applied  by  De  Soto.  Fifty-seven 
peaks  in  the  western  part  of  North  Carolina  are  over  six  thousand 
feet  high.  The  Blue  Ridge  is  the  water-shed  of  this  system  in  this 


268  METHODS  AND   AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

State,  as  not  a  river  severs  it.  This  statement  is  not  true  in  reference 
to  the  same  range  of  mountains  in  other  States.  [Tell  the  pupils  to 
consult  their  map  ] 

According  to  most  geologies,  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina 
were  the  first  to  appear  above  the  water,  therefore  the  oldest ;  hence 
one  of  the  high  peaks  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  called  "  The  Grandfather." 

On  the  top  of  Mitchell's  Peak  is  the  solitary  grave  of  Professor 
Elisha  Mitchell,  piled  round  with  stones,  without  further  monument. 

"  The  entire  region  is  mantled  with  forests  to  the  summit  of  every 
peak;  the  valleys  and  many  of  the  adjacent  coves  are  cleared,  and 
inhabited  by  a  happy,  healthy,  and  hospitable  people.  It  is  rich  in 
picturesque  scenery,  romantic  rivers,  luxuriant  forests,  majestic 
mountain  heights,  and  valleys  of  exquisite  beauty."  —  Heart  of  the 
Alleghanies,  p.  12. 

The  comparative  elevations  of  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  are  plainly  indicated  by  a  contour  map  such 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  58. 

Comparisons. 


ROCKY   MOUNTAINS. 

Long. 

Wide. 

Continuous. 

Very  high. 

18,000  feet. 

Plateaus  and  parks  between. 

Snow  twelve  months. 

Dry. 

Sharp,  pointed,  jagged  tops. 

Generally  bare  or  snow-capped. 


APPALACHIAN. 

Short. 

Narrow. 

Broken. 

Less  high. 

6,000  feet  (about  J). 

Valleys  between. 

Snow  eight  months. 

Moist. 

Round,  smooth  tops. 

Usually  forest-clothed. 


Usefulness  of  American  Mountains. 


All  are  useful  in  condensing  the  moisture  in  the  air,  and 
in  producing  rain.  In  the  West  they  are  storehouses  of 
the  precious  and  useful  metals  (the  Rocky  Mountains 


ELEVATIONS  IN  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES       269 


Fig  58.— Elevations  Shown  by  Contour  Lines,    Census 
Report,  1880* 


270  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

being  said  to  contain  more  precious  minerals  than  any  other 
range  in  the  world)  : .  in  the  east  they  are  covered  with 
forests.  The  Alleghanies  are  both  covered  with  forests, 
and  filled  with  coal  and  iron. 

PLAINS 
1.    The  Central   Plain. 

[Examine  the  maps,  and  see  if  this  plain  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  bordered  on  each  side  by  the  two  highlands  already  described,  thus 
forming  one  of  the  largest  valleys  in  the  world.  ] 

Some  one  has  said,  "  In  this  Central  Plain  is  rolled  out, 
in  one  uniform  expanse  of  2,800,000  square  miles,  an  area 
of  arable  land  equal  in  surface  to  all  the  valleys  of  all  the 
other  grand  divisions." 

It  is  triangular  in  shape,  narrow  at  the  south,  and  very 
broad  at  the  north.  Formerly  it  was  part  of  a  great  inland 
sea.  \ 

It  is  crossed  in  the  middle  by  a  low  water-parting  called 
the  Height  of  Land,  dividing  the  valley  into  two  slopes.  So 
gradual  are  these  slopes,  a  person  might  travel  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
River,  and  not  realize  he  had  experienced  any  difference  of 
elevation.  The  slope  westward  from  the  Mississippi  River 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  also  very  gradual.  Hence  all  the 
rivers  in  this  plain  are  navigable  for  long  distances.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  the  land  is  so  level 
that  a  person  crossing  it  sees  first  the  tops  of  the  trees  and 
the  houses,  just  as  ships  are  seen  at  sea,  showing  the 
sphericity  of  the  earth. 


PLAINS  AND  DRAINAGE  271 

2.    The  Atlantic  Plain. 

This  plain  lies  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains,  and  stretches  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
to  Labrador. 

It  may  be  divided  into  the  hilly  and  the  level  country. 
South  of  New  York  the  level  country  lies  near  the  coast, 
and  is  separated  from  the  hilly  country  by  the  falls  at  the 
head  of  tide-water,  thus  indicating  the  distance  these 
Atlantic  rivers  are  navigable.  At  the  head  of  navigation 
on  each  river  is  situated  a  large  city. 

[Pupils  notice  location  of  Newark,  Trenton,  Baltimore, 
Washington,  Fredericksburg,  Richmond,  Petersburg,  and 
Weldon.] 

[The  pupils  now  should  draw  the  important  ranges  of  mountains  on  the  progressive 
map,  and  print  or  write  their  names  in  the  proper  places,  as  they  are  on  the  text- 
book map.  An  excellent  selection  to  read  the  class  at  this  point  will  be  found  in 
W.  G.  Marshall's  Through  America,  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  Yosemite 
Valley.] 

V.    DRAINAGE 

North  America  is  richer  in  navigable  rivers  than  Asia,  or 
any  of  the  grand  divisions  of  the  Old  World. 

1.    Water-Partings. 

.There  are  three  plainly  marked  water-partings  indicated 
on  any  map  of  North  America. 

1.  The  Pacific  Highlands. 

2.  The  Atlantic  Highlands. 

3.  The  Height  of  land. 

[The  teacher  should  call  attention  of  class  to  flow  of  rivers  from  these  water* 
partings.] 

The  South  Pass  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the  one 
great  continental  divide.  From  this  vicinity,  the  land 


272 


METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


descends  towards  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  North 
Atlantic  and  the  Arctic  seas. 

[Look  on  the  raap,  and  see  how  the  rivers  flow  from  the  South  Pass  in  various 
directions.] 

Thus  towards  the  Mexican  Gulf  run  the  Rio  Grande  and 
its  companion  rivers  of  Texas.  Down  the  "  Great  Prairie 
Plains "  descend  the  Red  River,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  etc. 
All  of  these  run  due  east,  parallel  to  one  another,  very 
straight,  and  with  few  rapids,  and  they  flow  into  the 'great 
central  trough,  the  Mississippi,  which  runs  from  north  to 
south  across  their  general  direction. 

From  the  map,  learn  the  order  in  which  these,  the  impor- 
tant rivers  of  this  country,  are  named,  and  their  respective 
locations :  — 


1.  Yukon. 

2.  Mackenzie  (named  after  Sir  A. 

Mackenzie). 

3.  Saskatchewan  (swift  current). 

4.  Nelson. 

5.  St.  Lawrence  (given  by  Cartier, 

1535)- 

6.  Mississippi  (father  of  current). 

7.  Missouri  (mud  water). 


8.  Nebraska  (flat  water). 

9.  Arkansas    (a  bow   of    smoky 

water). 

10.  Ohio  (beautiful  river). 

11.  Rio  Grande  (great  river). 

12.  Colorado  (red). 

13.  Columbia    (named    by    Capt. 

Gray,  1792). 

14.  Frazer. 


Do  the  four  bordering  waters  of  the  country  receive  the 
drainage  of  these  fourteen  rivers?  If  so,  the  systems 
might  properly  be  named  after  them. 


RIVERS  AND  LAKES  273 

2.   River  Systems. 

[Let  the  pupils  find  the  other  rivers  from  the  map.] 
SYSTEM.  •  RIVERS. 

r.  Mackenzie,  Saskatchewan,  etc. 


1.  ARCTIC      .... 

(  2.  Nelson,  etc. 

2.  ATLANTIC          ...  St.  Lawrence,  Connecticut,  etc. 

i.  Mississippi,  Missouri,  etc. 


•7     GULF 

(  2.  Rio  Grande,  etc. 

!r.  Yukon.     2.  Frazer. 
3.  Columbia.    4.  Colorado. 

[The  teacher  caif  make  a  pleasant  exercise  by  writing  a  part  of  the  above,  and 
asking  the  pupils  to  fill  in  the  remainder.] 

The  Great  Lakes. 

These  lakes  are  situated  in  the  central  part  of  the  great  Central 
Plain,  just  south  of  the  height  of  land,  in  a  depression  which  drains 
towards  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

They  have  a  shore-line  more  than  three  thousand  (3,450)  miles 
in  length.  They  are  connected  with  one  another,  thus  affording  an 
immense  system  of  inland  commerce.  It  is  thought  that  they  contain 
one-half  of  all  the  fresh  water  in  the  world.  Each  one  is  so  large,  it 
seems  like  a  sea,  and  greatly  affects  the  climate  of  the  country  around 
it. 

Lake  Superior  is  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long,  and  as 
large  in  area  as  all  the  New-England  States  except  Maine.  The 
surface  of  this  lake  is  six  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  its  bottom 
as  many  feet  below  the  sea. 

The  shores  of  Lake  Superior  are  everywhere  rocky  and  bluff,  and 
rich  in  mineral  wealth  and  timber.  Native  copper  abounds  on  both 
the  northern  and  southern  shores,  and  on  Isle  Royale.  Here  are 
found  beautiful  specimens  of  this  ore.  The  celebrated  pictured  rocks 
are  along  the  south  shore.  They  are  of  various  colors,  as  if  painted 
by  Indian  artists,  and  in  the  distance  resemble  castles. 

Lake  Michigan  is  next  in  size ;  twenty  feet  lower  in  level,  and 
its  average  depth  about  the  same.  Huron  is  nearly  as  large  and 


2  7.4 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


deep,  and  it  is  on  the  same  level.  The  shores  of  both  are  low 
and  heavily  timbered.  Erie  is  very  shallow,  and  much  disturbed  by 
storms.  Ontario  means  beautiful.  This  lake,  though  farther  north, 
has  much  less  ice  in  it  than  Erie.  Like.  Superior,  its  bottom  is  as  far 
below  the  level  of  the  sea  as  its  surface  is  above  it.  The  water  in 
passing  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Ontario  descends  three  hundred 
and  seventy  feet,  and  only  two  hundred  and  thirty  feet  more  to  reach 
tide-water. 

[The  teacher,  by  putting  the  following  simple  illustration  on  the  blackboard,  will 
greatly  interest  the  class  in  these  lakes.     See  Fig.  59.] 


Fig  59.  — The  Great  Lakes. 

Showing  heights  above  and  below  sea-level,  and  with  one  another. 


Description  of  Four  Characteristic  Rivers. 

[Let  the  pupil  by  the  list  of  sub-divisions  under  river-systems,  p.  48,  learn  and 
describe  most  of  the  points  in  reference  to  each  river.] 

Mississippi  River.  —  The  Mississippi  River,  with  its  longest 
branch  (Missouri-Mississippi),  rises  in  the  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS,  and 
drains  the  southern  slope  of  the  Central  Plain.  It  flows  in  a  SOUTH- 
ERLY direction  through  the  United  States,  measuring  from  the  source 
of  the  Missouri  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  in  the  Gulf,  FORTY- 
TWO  HUNDRED  MILES,  thus  making  it  the  LONGEST  river  in  the 
WORLD. 

Its  main  branch  is  navigable  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  near  St. 
Paul.  Its  course  throughout  is  very  winding,  and  some  of  the  turns 
are  called  ox-bows.  (See  Fig,  60.)  In  the  upper  part  it  is  bordered 


THE  MISSISSIPPI    RIVER 


275 


by  high,  steep  bluffs,  being  the  margins  of  the  flat  prairie  level,  which 
stretch  back  to  a  limitless  distance  on  each  side.  Between  the 
bluffs  the  great  river  meanders  from  side  to  side,  in  a  broad  bottom- 
land of  inexhaustible  fertility.  Farther  south  the  bluffs  disappear, 
and  the  banks  become  low. 

If  the  Mississippi  were  left  to  itself,  it  would  overflow  its  natural 
banks  for  hundreds  of  miles  above  the  mouth.  The  planters  have 
built  continuous  lines  of  earth-embankments,  called  levees,  to  keep 
the  river  in  its  proper  channel.  The  river  is  not  only  constantly 


Fig.  6O.  —  The  Great  Bend  in  the  Mississippi  River. 

changing  its  course,  but  it  deposits  sediment  upon  the  banks,  so  that, 
as  a  person  goes  inland  from  the  river,  he  descends  at  least  four  feet 
to  a  mile.  The  water  in  the  river  is  often  as  high  as  the  second-story 
windows  of  the  planter's  house.  In  springtime  these  levees  fre- 
quently break  away,  causing  dismay  to  the  inhabitants,  and  destroying 
immense  property.  In  the  great  crevasse  of  1874,  steamers  sailed 
over  the  streets  of  villages. 

At  New  Orleans  the  river  is  one  and  a  half  miles  wide.     Below 
the  city  are  many  large  sugar-plantations  near  the  river,  the  dwelling- 


276  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

houses  of  which  are  hidden  by  magnificent  trees.  Farther  down,  the 
banks  are  called  the  "  coast,"  along  which  are  found  the  "  gardens  " 
that  supply  the  "  Crescent  City  "  with  its  vegetables. 

Owing  to  the  muddy  character  of  the  water,  the  river  now  loses 
all  its  beauty  and  picturesqueness.  The  scenery  is  very  monotonous. 
Twenty  miles  from  the  Gulf  the  great  river  divides  into  many  branches, 
called  passes.  The  four  largest  are  known  as  the  South-west,  South, 
North-east  and  A  Loutre  passes. 

Capt.  Eads,  in  behalf  of  the  United-States  Government,  with 
great  skill  and  at  great  expense,  built  in  the  South  Pass  "jetties," 
or  artificial  banks,  by  which  the  current  is  made  to  deepen  its  own 
channel.  Had  not  this  been  done,  the  commerce  of  the  river  would 
have  been  seriously  impaired  by  the  yearly  deposits  of  mud.  The 
river  now  admits  the  largest  cotton-ships. 

Instead  of  one  grand  current  pouring  into  the  ocean  its  mighty 
flood  of  fresh  waters,  as  is  the  case  at  the  mouths  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Amazon,  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  consists  of  numerous  arms, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  four  passes  mentioned  above,  flowing 
through  low  swamps,  and  forming,  from  the  great  quantities  of  mud 
in  the  water,  numerous  islands.  This  network  of  creeks,  bayous,  and 
passes,  makes  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  which  is  gradually  extending 
itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  • 

La  Salle  was  the  first  to  pass  down  the  river  and  into  the  Gulf 
(1682).  But,  when  he  returned  from  Spain  with  a  large  expedition  to 
find  the  mouth  of  the  same  river  from  the  sea,  he  searched  for  many 
weary  months  without  success  ;  and  his  men,  incensed  by  his  repeated 
failures,  assassinated  him. 

Foster,  in  his  Mississippi  Valley \  says,  "  The  Mississippi  River, 
when  we  consider  its  great  length,  the  number  and  character  of  its 
tributaries,  often  exceeding  the  first-class  rivers  of  Europe,  the  area 
of  country  which  it  drains,  the  vast  system  of  internal  navigation 
which  it  affords,  and  the  populous  towns  which  have  been  founded 
on  its  banks,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  striking  topographical 
features  of  the  earth." 

This  river  has  fifty-seven  branches,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  Missouri,  Ohio,  etc. 

A  distinguished  French  writer  once  said  of  it,  "Upon  the  whole, 
the  most  magnificent  dwelling-place  prepared  by  God  for  man's  abode." 


THE  MISSOURI  AND   ST.   LAWRENCE  277 

What  Douglas  Jerrold  said  of  Australia  is  true  of  this 
valley  :  "  Just  tickle  her  with  a  hoe,  and  she  laughs  with  a 
harvest." 

[Let  the  teacher  read  to  the  class  a  few  selections  from  Bishop's  Four  Months  in 
a  Sneak-Box  J\ 

"The  Missouri  River,  opposite  Bismarck,  Da.,  is  very  swift,  six 
miles  an  hour;  and  it  is  impossible  for  the  strongest  swimmer  to  save 
himself  if  once  he  falls  in.  The  mud  will  settle  on  him,  clog  his 
movements,  and  bear  him  under. 

<kThe  river  here  is  very  crooked,  full  of  sand-bars,  the  channel 
changing  every  year.  Great  portions  of  the  banks  become  honey- 
combed by  the  force  of  the  water,  and  are  constantly  caving  in  with 
a  loud  thud."  —  Boots  and  Saddles,  p.  186. 

The  St.  Lawrsnce  River. — The  St.  Lawrence  River,  taken  in 
the  fullest  sense  of  the  name,  rises  in  the  St.  Louis  River,  which  flows 
into  Lake  Superior.  In  different  parts  of  its  course  it  is  known  by 
different  names.  Thus  from  the  sea  to  Kingston,  it  is  styled  the  St. 
Lawrence ;  between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  the  Niagara ;  between 
Lakes  Erie  and  St.  Clair,  the  Detroit;  between  Lakes  St.  Clair  and 
Huron,  the  River  St.. Clair;  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  the 
Narrows,  or  Sault  St.  Marie,  —  all  of  which  sections  form  a  waterway 
of  2,384  miles. 

Lake  Superior  is,  however,  the  inexhaustible  spring  of  the  river. 
It  issues  from  the  lake  with  rapid  current,  rushes  through  the  Narrows 
of  the  Sault  St.  Marie  for  a  distance  of  twenty-seven  miles,  and, 
tumbling  over  a  rocky  bed,  enters  Lake  Huron. 

This  last- mentioned  lake  is  said  to  be  a  thousand  feet  deep,  and  to 
abound  in  fish.  From  T;he  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Huron  the 
channel  contracts  to  the  narrow  and  swiftly  flowing  St.  Clair  River, 
which,  sixty  miles  farther  south,  expands  into  a  lake  by  the  same 
name.  Between  this  lake  and  Erie  the  stream  is  called  Detroit,  and 
it  contains  many  islands  of  considerable  size. 

Niagara  River  is  thirty-six  miles  long,  and  from  half  a  mile  to  three 
miles  wide.  Its  course  is  north,  and  the  stream  is  divided  by  many 
islands,  of  which  Grand  Island  is  the  largest,  and  Goat  Island  the 
most  picturesque. 


2  78 


METHODS  AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


The  levels  of  the  country  here  change,  by  a  sudden  drop,  to  the 
level  of  Lake  Ontario,  three  hundred  and  thirty  feet  nearer  sea-level. 
(See  p.  274.)  As  the  Niagara  River  approaches  its  fearful  leap  of  a 
hundred  and  sixty  feet,  its  waters  lash  themselves  into  a  fury,  and 
surge  like  the  breakers  on  a  rock-bound  coast.  This  is  true  to  even 
a  greater  extent  below  the  Falls,  at  the  narrow  gorge,  appropriately 
called  the  Whirlpool. 

Goat  Island  divides  the  waters  of  the  Fall.  On  the  Canadian  side, 
or  left  bank,  the  rock  is  worn  into  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  and 
hence  its  name  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  This  part  has  a  width  of 
nineteen  hundred  feet. 

The  American  Fall  is  straight  in  its  line,  only  one-third  as  wide, 


Fig.  61.  — Profile  of  Niagara,  Falls. 

A,  Limestone,  a  hard  rock.     B,  a  softer  rock.     G,  Marl,  still  softer. 
D,  Sandstone,  very  soft. 

and  carrying  much  less  water,  but  to  many  observers  fully  as 
attractive. 

The  reason  of  the  falls,  and  the  constant  wearing  back  of  the  edge 
of  the  falls,  can  be  explained  to  a  class  very  easily  by  drawing  on  the 
board  Fig.  61,  and  showing  the  nature  of  the  upper  and  lower  beds 
of  rock. 

The  Falls,  in  order  to  be  fully  appreciated,  must  be  seen  from  Goat 
Island,  Suspension  Bridge,  the  Canadian  Side,  and  especially  from 
behind  the  vast  sheet  of  water,  in  the  "Chamber  of  Winds." 

N.  P.  Willis  says  of  this  great  wonder  of  Nature,  "  Mountains  of 
water,  belching  forth  the  most  appalling  sounds ;  globes  of  foam,  boil- 
ing with  rage ;  rainbows  with  numerous  and  splendid  arches ;  rocks 


THE  ST.    LAWRENCE  RIVER  279 

bold,  projecting  over  the  tumultuous  abyss ;  spray-covered  forests, 
decorated  with  pearly  drops." 

The  rumble  or  thunder  of  the  Falls  is  sometimes  heard  forty  miles 
away,  and  the  trembling  of  the  earth  for  fifteen  miles  around;  while 
the  column  of  spray  is  visible  sometimes  seventy  miles.  The  sound 
is  not  an  ear-cracking  crash  and  clang  of  noises,  but  it  is  sweet  and 
soft.  You  can  speak  to  your  neighbor  without  effort. 

The  power  of  this  mighty  cataract  has  been  estimated  as  high  as 
4,500,000  horse-power;  and  some  practical  people  would  like  to  make 
it  work,  and  set  dynamos  in  motion,  storing  up  power,  to  be  conveyed 
hundreds  of  miles  away  by  electricity. 

For  five  miles  the  river  flows  through  its  deeply  cut  channel  in  the 
solid  rock  in  a  very  quiet  manner,  till  the  great  maelstrom,  or  whirl- 
pool, is  reached.  After  this  is  passed,  the  velocity  of  the  river  is 
subdued,  and  it  follows  a  tranquil  course  to  Lake  Ontario. 

At  the  eastern  end  of  this  lake,  the  St.  Lawrence  River  proper 
begins.  For  forty  miles  it  is  studded  with  innumerable  islands.  To 
avoid  exaggeration,  they  are  called  the  "Thousand  Islands."  In 
summer,  tourists  visit  this  section  of  the  river  in  great  numbers,  and 
all  praise  its  beauty. 

On  the  way  to  Montreal  the  river  widens  twice  into  large  lakes, 
and  descends  several  times  so  as  to  form  rapids,  of  which  there  are 
six  of  some  importance,  —  the  Lachine,  near  Montreal,  being  the  most 
picturesque. 

Below  the  last-named  rapids,  the  river  contracts  to  about  two 
miles,  and  is  spanned  by  that  remarkable  iron  structure  called  the 
Victoria  Bridge.  Montreal  stands  on  an  island,  and  rises  terrace 
above  terrace,  till  Mount  Royal  is  reached  covered  with  majestic 
maples  and  pines.  No  fairer  picture  can  be  seen  on  this  continent 
than  the  view  from  this  mount,  of  city,  river,  and  bridge. 

From  Kingston  to  Montreal  the  banks  of  the  river  are  very  mod- 
erate in  height,  and  the  adjoining  country,  the  valley  of  the  river, 
remarkably  level.  But  as  Quebec  is  approached,  the  country  be- 
comes more  hilly  ;  and  the  banks  become  higher  and  higher,  until 
they  attain  the  height  of  Cape  Diamond,  on  which  the  citadel  of 
Quebec  stands. 

The  view  from  this  fortress  of  the  St.  Lawrence   seen  for  forty 


280  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

miles,  crowded  with  innumerable  sail ;  of  the  Isle  of  Orleans ;  of  the 
River  St.  Charles;  of  so  many  fertile  valleys,  hills,  and  pretty  villages 
near  by;  and  of  the  bold  mountains  far  away,  —  is  thought  by  some 
to  surpass  the  views  from  the  castles  of  Edinburgh  and  Stirling  in 
Scotland. 

The  St.  Lawrence  soon  begins  to  widen  into  an  estuary,  as  the 
many  tributaries  greatly  increase  the  amount  of  the  water,  especially 
the  Saguenay,  whose  mouth  is  a  mile  wide  and  a  thousand  feet 
deep.  Opposite  Iberville  the  St.  Lawrence  River  is  thirty  miles 
wide.  Two  hundred  miles  farther,  the  voyager  reaches  the  mouth  of 
this  mighty  stream,  and  the  island  of  Anticosti,  —  a  favorite  resort  for 
bear-hunting,  salmon  and  trout  fishing. 

"The  Saguenay,"  says  B.  Taylor,  "is  not  properly  a  river.  It  is 
a  tremendous  chasm  like  that  of  the  Jordan  Valley  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
cleft  for  sixty  miles  through  the  heart  of  a  mountain  wilderness. 
Every  thing  is  hard,  naked,  stern,  silent.  Dark  gray  cliffs  of  gneiss 
rise  from  the  pitch-black  water,  and  furrows  of  gloomy  green  are 
rooted  in  their  crevices,  and  cover  their  summits.  .  .  . 

"  The  water  beneath  us  was  black  as  night,  with  a  pitchy  glaze 
on  its  surface.  The  river  is  a  reproduction  of  the  fjords  of  the 
Norwegian  coast." 

Saguenay  comes  from  two  Indian  words,  which  mean  precipices  for 
banks.  Near  Cape  Eternity  it  is  eighteen  hundred  feet  deep.  In 
some  places  no  sounding-line  has  been  found  long  enough  to  touch 
bottom. 

Comparisons. 
[Let  the  children  tell  what  to  write.] 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Rises  in  mountains. 

Flows  south. 

Bluffs. 

Muddy. 

Constantly  rising  and  falling. 

Crooked. 

Delta. 

4,200. 

etc. 


'    ST.  LAWRENCE. 

Rises  in  Great  Lakes. 

Flows  north-east. 

Rocky  banks. 

Clear. 

Steady  and  uniform. 

Straight. 

Estuary. 

2,000. 

etc. 


COLUMBIA  AND  COLORADO  RIVERS  281 

Columbia  River.  —  This  river  rises  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
ROCKY  MOUNTAINS.  Part  of  its  sources  is  in  BRITISH  COLUMBIA, 
and  part  in  the  UNITED  STATES.  Although  it  flows,  at  different 
places,  in  all  the  directions  of  the  compass,  its  general  course  is 
westward  to  its  mouth  in  the  PACIFIC  OCEAN.  It  is  about  FOURTEEN 
HUNDRED  miles  long. 

It  is  navigable  in  sections.  The  first  section  is;  to  the  Cascades 
(a  hundred  and  sixty  miles).  Here  a  portage  of  six  miles  is  neces- 
sary. The  second  section  is  to  the  Dalles  (fifty  miles).  This 
obstruction  to  navigation  is  fourteen  miles  long.  The  third  section 
is  a  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles  long ;  and  the  fourth  reaches  to 
Fort  Colville,  above  the  Arrow  Lakes  in  Columbia. 

Its  branches  are  WILLAMETTE,  LEWIS  (or  Snake),  and  CLARK. 
The  two  latter  were  named  after  Messrs.  Lewis  and  Clark,  who  took 
that  perilous  journey  over  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1803,  and  discov- 
ered these  rivers.  [Graphically  described  in  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
road, by  Smalley,  pp.  12-20.]  The  valley  of  the  Columbia  in  British 
Columbia  is  narrow,  and  bounded  on  both  sides  by  snow-clad  peaks. 

The  Colorado  River  rises  on  the  westeni  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  the  north  branch,  called  the  Green  River,  coming  from 
the  South  Pass  in  Wyoming  Territory,  and  the  south  branch,  called 
the  Little  Colorado,  rising  among  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico, 
while  the  central  branch,  called  the  Grand  £iver,  starts  in  the  centre 
of  the  State  of  Colorado,  at  the  foot  of  those  mighty  peaks,  Pike's 
and  Long's. 

This  river  occupies  the  bed  of  a  depression,  and  flows  nearly  in  a 
southern  direction  through  South-eastern  Utah,  and  along  the  western 
boundary  of  Arizona.  Most  of  the  branches  enter  the  main  stream 
at  right  angles.  Like  many  other  large  streams,  it  cuts  its  way  across 
seemingly  impossible  obstacles,  and  presents  thereby  some  of  the 
grandest  scenery  in  the  world.  A  large  part  of  the  surface  of  this 
region  consists  of  bare  rocks,  with  no  soil  or  vegetation.  The  land- 
scape everywhere  is  of  rocks,  —  cliffs  of  rock,  tables  of  rock, 
plateaus  of  rock,  terraces  of  rock,  crags  of  rock;  a  whole  land  of 
naked  rock,  with  giant  forms  carved  on  it ;  cathedral-shaped  rocks,  all 
highly  colored,  —  buff,  gray,  red,  brown,  and  chocolate. 

Great  cliffs,  thousands  of  feet  high,  and  extending  like  huge  walls 


282  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

for  hundreds  of  miles,  change  the  level  of  the  country  at  a  single 
step.  Most  of  the  rivers  in  this  country  flow  through  canons ,  i.e., 
through  cuts  in  the  mountains  which  are  very  deep,  and  far  below  the 
general  level  of  the  country.  The  Colorado  River  runs  in  a  canon 
for  over  a  thousand  miles.  One  of  the  canons  in  Arizona  is  over  two 
hundred  miles  long. 

Major  Powell  explored  this  marvellous  canon  in  1869,  and  his 
report  reads  like  fiction.  In  one  place  he  passed  through  Horseshoe 
Canon,  which  describes  an  elongated  letter  U,  in  the  mountains. 

The  cliffs  here  reach  a  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  the  water 
usually  fills  the  width  of  the  channel ;  but  occasionally  the  canon 
opened  into  a  little  park  covered  with  a  grassy  carpet  of  crimson 
flowers,  or  patches  of  blue  and  yellow  blossoms. 

At  another  place  he  walked  for  more  than  a  mile  on  a  marble 
pavement  embossed  with  a  thousand  different  patterns. 

Day  after  day  there  were  rocks,  deep  gorges,  towers  and  pinnacles, 
side  canons  and  recesses,  thousands  of  strangely  carved  forms,  and 
mountains  blending  with  the  clouds.  Sometimes  the  clouds  would 
roll  into  the  canon  so  as  to  fill  it  with  gloom;  sometimes  they  hung 
from  wall  to  wall,  forming  a  roof.  Then  a  gust  of  wind  from  a  side 
canon  would  make  a  rift  in  them,  and  reveal  the  blue  sky  above. 
The  rocks  were  of  many  colors,  —  white,  gray,  pink,  and  purple,  with 
saffron  tints.  The  part  o^  the  canon  below  the  Little  Colorado  is 
called  "  Marble  Canon."  Here  the  scenery  is  magnificent ;  but  fifty 
miles  below,  the  river  enters  the  Grand  Canon,  which  surpasses  every 
thing  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 

Major  Powell,  in  describing  this  part  of  his  trip,  says,  — 

**  The  walls  now  are  more  than  a  mile  (seven  thousand  feet)  in 
height,  a  vertical  distance  difficult  to  appreciate.  ...  A  thousand 
feet  of  this  is  up  through  granite  crags.  The  steep  slopes  and 
perpendicular  cliffs  rise,  one  above  another,  to  the  summit.  The 
gorge  is  black  and  narrow  below,  red  and  gray  and  flaring  above, 
with  crags  and  angular  projections  on  the  walls,  which,  cut  in  many 
places  by  side  canons,  seem  to  be  vast  wildernesses  of  rocks. 

*'  Down  in  these  grand,  gloomy  depths  we  glide,  ever  listening,  for 
the  mad  waters  keep  up  their  roar,  ever  watching,  ever  peering  ahead, 
for  the  narrow  canon  is  winding,  and  the  river  is  closed  in,  so  we  can 


THE   FRAZER   RIVER  283 

see  but  a  few  hundred  yards ;  and  what  there  may  be  below,  we  know 
not.  But  we  listen  for  falls,  and  watch  for  rocks,  or  stop  now  and 
then  in  the  bay  of  a  recess  to  admire  the  gigantic  scenery." 

[If  the  class  is  deeply  interested,  further  information  can  be  found  in  Powell's 
Reports,  published  by  the  Government,  in  Stanford's  Compendium  of  North 
America^  p.  98,  or  in  Zigzag  Journey  to  the  Occident,  last  part.] 

The  Colorado  River  for  its  length  of  two  thousand  miles 
contains  little  water,  and  consequently  it  is  navigable  but  a 
short  distance.  [Why  is  there  so  little  water  in  this  river?] 

022  the  Frazer  River.  —  The  scenery  of  the  Frazer  is  in  some 
places  grand  in  the  extreme,  and  many  persons  think  it  excels  that 
of  the  Columbia  River.  At  "  Hell's  Gate,"  about  ten  miles  above 
Yale,  the  river  rushes  through  a  channel  only  fifty  yards  wide,  the 
rocks  on  each  side  being  perpendicular.  The  difference  between 
the  height  of  the  river  in  summer,  at  the  melting  of  the  snows,  and 
in  winter,  is  not  less  than  ninety  feet,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  high-water 
marks  on  the  rocky  walls. 

"Rugged  and  inaccessible  mountains  rise  to  a  height  of  several 
thousand  feet,  and  are  so  precipitous  that  a  feeling  of  giddiness  is 
experienced  when  looking  up  to  their  snowy  summits.  A  very  pretty 
suspension  bridge  crosses  the  river  about  ten  miles  above  Yale,  and 
makes  a  picturesque  break  in  the  stupendous  character  of  the  scenery. 
Just  imagine  grand  canons  and  giant  cliffs,  along  whose  rugged  sides 
the  road  runs,  and  whence  the  swift-rushing  river,  far,  far  below,  looks 
like  a  mere  silken  thread ;  wild  heights,  sometimes  bare,  sometimes 
pine-clad  ;  snow-capped  peaks,  rising  above  ranges  of  lofty  mountains; 
the  narrow  pass  dwarfed  by  the  altitude  of  the  towering  rocks  on  both 
sides,  —  and  you  have  some  of  the  ingredients  of  the  Frazer  scenery. 
—  Western  Wanderings,  BoDDAM- WHET  HAM,  London. 

[With  a  little  help  from  the  teacher,  let  the  children  work  out  a  description,  in  a 
similar  manner,  of  the  largest  river  within  three  hundred  miles  of  their  homes.] 


CHAPTER    XIV 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NORTH  AMERICA   Continued 


NORTH  AMERICA  will  rapidly  accumulate  a  population  equalling 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  world  combined  :  a  people  one  and  indivisible, 
identical  in  manners,  language,  customs,  and  impulses  ;  preserving  the 
same  civilization,  the  same  religion,  imbued  with  the  same  opinions, 
and  having  the  same  political  liberties. —  William  Gilpin. 

285 


BOOKS    FOR    CONSULTATION1 


ALDRIDGE'S  RANCH  NOTES. 
ABERCROMBY'S  WEATHER.    Illustrated. 
BODDAM'S  PACIFIC  COAST. 
BROWN'S  NOTES  ON  THE  NORTHERN  ATLANTIC. 
BLODGETT'S  CLIMATOLOGY. 
CUSTER'S  BOOTS  AND  SADDLES. 
BALL'S  ALASKA. 

GREELY'S  THREE  YEARS  OF  ARCTIC  SERVICE.    Illustrated. 
HAYES'S  LAND  OF  DESOLATION.    Illustrated. 
HAZARD'S  CUBA. 
HATTON'S  NEWFOUNDLAND. 
HUTCHINGS'S  CALIFORNIA. 
KANE'S  ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS.    Illustrated 
KINGSLEY'S  AT  LAST. 

NOURSE'S  AMERICAN  EXPLORATIONS.    Illustrated. 
OBER'S  MEXICO.     Illustrated. 
PORTER'S  THE  WEST.     Illustrated. 
RINK'S  GREENLAND.     Illustrated. 
ROWAN'S  CANADA. 
WHYMPER'S  ALASKA. 
286 


See  also  list,  p.  322. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NORTH  AMERICA,  Continued 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS  —  SELECTIONS  —  GREENLAND  —  ALASKA  —  POLAR     REGIONS  — 

BIRCH  BARK  —  BIG  TREES  —  MEXICO  —  JAMAICA  —  LETTER  —  NATURAL  DIVISIONS  — 

"CLIMATE  —  PECULIARITIES  —  OCEAN  CURRENTS  —  EPITOME  OF   CLIMATE  —  LIFE: 

VEGETABLE  —  ANIMAL  —  HUMAN  —  RACES  —  POPULATION  —  OCCUPATION  —  A   CALI- 
FORNIA    FARM — A     BONANZA     FARM  —  COMPARISONS — MANUFACTURING  —  MINING 

—  GOLD — SILVER  —  GRAZING  —  FISHING  —  LANGUAGE  —  MANNERS     AND     CUSTOMS 

—  EDUCATION  —  RELIGION  —  GOVERNMENT 

VI.    POLITICAL    DIVISIONS 

[Let  the  teacher  draw  upon  the  board  two  perpendicular  lines,  so  as  to  make  three 
wide  columns,  and  then  ask  the  pupils,  one  by  one,  to  name  in  order  the  political 
divisions,  then  the  capitals  of  each,  and  finally  the  other  important  towns  not  men- 
tioned. The  exercise,  when  finished,  will  appear  like  that  given  below.  After 
study,  test  the  pupils  by  sending  them  to  the  board  to  write  and  spell  without  the  help 
of  the  book  these  divisions  and  towns.  Both  exercises  will  greatly  interest  them.] 


Countries. 

Capitals. 

Cities  and  Towns. 

Danish  America  .     . 

Lichtenfels  (residence  of  the  Governor). 

Greenland  .... 

Upernavik  (spring  place). 

Reikiavik  (steam-town). 

British  America  .     . 

Ottawa  . 

Montreal  (140,000),  Toronto,  Quebec,  Halifax, 
St.  John,  Winnipeg,  Victoria. 

United  States  .     .     . 

Washington   . 

New  York  (1,200,000),  Philadelphia  (850,000), 
Chicago,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Cincinnati,  St. 
Louis,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco. 

Mexico  

Mexico      .     . 

Vera  Cruz,  Tampico,  Acapulco. 

Central  America  .     . 

Guatemala,  Balize,  Havana,  Port-au-Prince. 

West  Indies    .     .     . 

Kingston,  San  Domingo. 

287 


288  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Selections. 

[The  following  extracts  may  be  read  to  the  class  by  the  teacher,  or  by  selected 
members.] 

Greenland.  —  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  one  of  the  highest  authorities, 
says,  — 

"  Greenland  is  a  large,  wedge-shaped  island,  or  series  of  islands,  sur- 
rounded by  the  icy  Polar  Basin  on  its  northern  shores.  .  .  .  The  whole 
of  the  de  facto  land  of  this  great  island  consists,  then,  of  a  circlet  of 
islets,  of  greater  or  less  extent,  circling  round  the  coast,  and  acting  as 
the  shores  of  the  interior  mer  de  glace,  —  a  huge  inland  sea  of  fresh- 
water ice,  or  glacier,  which  covers  the  whole  extent  of  the  country  to 
an  unknown  depth.  .  .  .  These  islands  are  bare,  bleak,  and  more  or 
less  mountainous,  reaching  to  about  two  thousand  feet.  The  snow 
clears  off,  leaving  room  for  vegetation  to  burst  out  during  the  short 
Arctic  summer.  .  .  .  These  inlets  between  the  islands  constitute  the 
fjords  of  Greenland,  and  are  the  channels  through  which  the  overflow 
of  the  interior  ice  discharges  itself.  It  is  on  these  islands,  or  cut- 
skirting  land,  that  the  population  of  Greenland  lives,  and  the  Danish 
trading-posts  are  built ;  all  the  rest  of  the  country  being  an  icy,  landless, 
sea-like  waste  of  glacier."  —  Arctic  Papers. 

Alaska..  —  According  to  Whymper:  "The  Yukon  River  breaks  up 
about  May  19.  At  Nulato,  which  is  six  hundred  miles  above  its 
mouths,  it  is,  from  bank  to  bank,  one  mile  and  a  quarter  wide.  Its 
tributaries  would  be  large  rivers  in  Europe :  and  the  proud  boast  of 
its  natives  is,  '  We  are  not  savages,  we  are  Yukon  Indians.'  A 
steamer  suitable  to  a  shallow  river  could  proceed  eighteen  hundred 
miles  on  the  Yukon.  The  journey  down  the  stream  from  Fort 
Yukon,  at  junction  of  Yukon  and  Porcupine  rivers,  to  Nulato,  six 
hundred  miles,  can  be  made  in  five  days  and  twenty  hours. 

"At  Fort  Yukon,  June  21.  the  night  was  very  short,  the  sun  being 
absent  only  forty-five  minutes. 

"  The  Aleutian  Islands  contain  many  active  volcanoes.  Altu  is 
farthest  west,  in  longitude  171°  30'  E." 


SELECTIONS  289 

"The  Polar  Regions  of  North  America,  lying  between  Alaska  and 
Greenland,  though  included  in  British  America,  are  scarcely  inhab- 
ited, and  have  no  character  as  political  divisions.  But  they  abound 
in  all  the  wonders  of  the  Arctic  world ;  and  these  wonders  have  been 
explored  and  illustrated  by  the  finest  displays  of  enterprise,  philan- 
thropy, and  science,  in  the  many  expeditions  searching  for  the  North- 
west Passage  and  the  pole.  (Read  Arctic  explorers,  particularly 
Kane,  Hayes,  Hall,  and  Schwatka.)  The  following  extracts  picture 
the  Arctic  summer  and  the  Arctic  night  at  78°  38'  north  latitude." 

"Nov.  7. —  The  darkness  is  coming  on  with  insidious  steadiness, 
and  its  advances  can  only  be  perceived  by  comparing  one  day  with 
the  fellow  of  some  time  back.  We  still  read  the  thermometer  at 
noonday  without  a  light,  and  the  black  masses  of  the  hills  are  plain 
for  about  five  hours,  with  their  glaring  patches  of  snow ;  but  all  the 
rest  is  darkness. 

"Dec.  15.  —  We  have  lost  the  last  vestige  of  the  midday  twilight. 
We  can  see  no  print,  and  hardly  paper;  the  fingers  cannot  be  counted 
a  foot  from  the  eyes.  Noonday  and  midnight  are  alike ;  and,  except 
a  vague  glimmer  in  the  sky  that  seems  to  define  the  hill  outlines  to 
the  south,  we  have  nothing  to  tell  us  that  this  Arctic  world  of  ours 
has  a  sun. 

"Jan.  21.  —  First  traces  of  returning  light,  the  southern  horizon 
having  for  a  short  time  a  distinct  orange  tinge."  —  Kane's  Journal. 

"The  birch-bark  canoe  is  the  British-American  camel.  It  is 
thirty  or  forty  feet  long,  its  sections  secured  together  with  the  roots 
and  filaments  of  the  fir.  If  broken  in,  it  may  be  patched  like  a  coat, 
and  calked  with  balsam  as  sound  as  ever.  As  it  has  a  flat  bottom, 
the  shallowest  river  will  float  it.  A  boat  which  will  carry  four  tons 
can  easily  be  borne  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  crew.  The  uses  of  the 
paper-birch  are  almost  as  manifold  as  those  of  the  palm-tree.  The 
pliant  bark,  peeled  off  in  large  pieces,  serves  to  cover  the  Indian's 
tent.  Carefully  sewed  together,  and  ornamented  with  the  quills  of 
the  porcupine,  it  is  made  into  baskets,  sacks,  dishes,  plates,  and  drink- 
ing-cups.  The  wood  serves  for  the  manufacture  of  oars,  snow-shoes, 
and  sledges;  and  the  sweet  sap  in  spring  may  be  boiled  to  a  sirup. 
It  is  a  tree  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  circle :  beyond,  it  becomes  a 
shrub.'* 


2QO  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Giant  Trees— -The  Big  Trees.  — There  are  eight  groves  in  all, 
between  the  thirtieth  degree  and  thirty-eighth  degree,  and  between 
five  thousand  and  seven  thousand  feet  in  elevation. 

The  Calaveras  Grove  is  the  one  most  visited  and  best  known.  It 
is  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra,  in  Calaveras  County.  It  occupies 
an  area  thirty-two  hundred  feet  by  seven  hundred  feet.  There  are 
about  a  hundred  big  trees  here.  The  highest  tree  is  fifteen  feet  in 
diameter,  and  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  in  height.  "  The 
Mother  of  the  Forest,"  without  the  bark,  is  twenty  feet  through. 
The  smallest  of  the  thirty-one  measured,  is  only  two  hundred  and 
thirty-one  feet  high. 

The  Mariposa  Grove  is  the  one  selected  by  the  State  for  public 
use.  It  is  near  the  Yosemite  Valley.  The  trees  are  more  numerous, 
and  some  say  larger,  in  the  latter  grove.  [Read  Our  New  West,  bv 
S.  Bowles,  for  further  information.] 

People  along  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  are  thus  spoken 
of:  — 

"The  oystermen  and  fishermen  living  along  the  lonely  beaches  of 
the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland  and  Virginia;  the  surfmen  and  light- 
house keepers  of  Albemarle,  Pamlico,  and  Core  sounds  in  North 
Carolina;  the  peanut  planters  who  inhabit  the  uplands  that  skir.  the 
network  of  creeks,  marshes,  ponds,  and  sounds ;  the  piny-woods 
people,  lumbermen  and  turpentine  distillers,  on  the  little  bluffs  that 
jut  into  the  fastnesses  of  the  great  swamps  of  the  crooked  Wac'ca- 
maw  River  (North  and  South  Carolina) ;  the  representatives  of  the 
powerful  rice-planting  aristocracy  of  the  Santee  and  Pedee  rivers; 
the  colored  men  of  the  beautiful  sea-islands  along  the  coast  of 
Georgia;  the  Floridians  living  between  the  St.  Mary's  River  and  the 
Suwanee  (the  wild  river  of  song) ;  the  islanders  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  where  I  terminated  my  long  journey,  —  all  have  contributed 
to  make  the  Voyage  of  the  Paper  Canoe  a  success." 

"Mexico lies  at  the  meeting-place  of  two  zones,  the  temperate  and 
the  torrid  ;  and  from  its  geographical  position,  combined  with  varying 
altitudes,  possesses  a  greater  variety  of  soil,  surface,  and  vegetation, 
than  any  other  equal  extent  of  contiguous  territory  in  the  world. 

"  Basking  in  the  sunshine,  of  the  tropics,  her  head  pillowed  in  the 


NATURAL   DIVISIONS,  AND  CLIMATE 


291 


lap  of  the  North,  her  feet  resting  at  the  gateway  of  the  continents, 
her  snowy  bosom  rising  to  the  clouds,  she  rests  serene  in  the  majesty 
of  her  might.  She  guards  vast  treasures  of  gold  and  silver;  emeralds 
and  opals  adorn  her  brow;  while  the  hem  of  her  royal  robe,  dipped  in 
the  seas  of  two  hemispheres,  is  embroidered  with  pearls,  and  the 
riches  of  oceans."  —  Oder's  Travels  in  Mexico,  p.  194. 

VII.    NATURAL  DIVISIONS 

[Help  the  children  to  select  and  arrange  as  below] 
1.  Border  Waters. 

1.  OCEANS  .  Pacific,  Arctic,  Atlantic. 

2.  SEAS      .  .  Caribbean,  Behring. 

3.  GULFS  .  .  St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  California,  Georgia. 

4.  BAYS     .  .  Baffin,     Hudson,     Delaware,     Chesapeake,    Cam- 

peachy,  Honduras,  San  Francisco. 

5.  STRAITS        .     Behring,  Davis,  Hudson,  Belle  Isle,  Florida  Chan- 

nel, Yucatan. 

2.  Projections,  etc. 

1.  PENINSULAS  .     Alaska,  Labrador,  Nova  Scotia,  Florida,  Yucatan, 

Lower  California. 

2.  CAPES  .        .     Barrow,    Farewell,    Race,    Sable,    Cod,    Hatteras, 

Sable,  Catoche,  San  Lucas,  Mendocino. 

3.  ISLANDS        .     Arctic  Archipelago,  Iceland,  Newfoundland,  Cape 

Breton,    Bermuda,    West    Indies,    Vancouver, 
Queen  Charlotte,  Baranoff,  Aleutian. 

4.  ISTHMUS       .     Panama. 

VIII.    CLIMATE 

North  x^merica  extends  so  far  north  and  south,  it  contains 
every  variety  of  climate  in  the  world.  For  convenience  in 
considering  this  important  subject,  divide  the  country  into 
three  belts  which  may  be  named,  i.  Northern  Belt ;  2.  Cen- 
tral Belt ;  3.  Southern  Belt. 


292  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Peculiarities. 

Northern  Belt.  —  Cold  winds  and  ice  abound.  There  is  no  rain 
within  the  area  of  80°  N.  excepting  in  July  and  August. 

Nineteen  inches  of  snow  sometimes  falls  in  one  day.  Perfect 
crystals  of  snow  are  only  seen  when  the  snow  falls  in  a  mild  temper- 
ature. Snow  in  the  Arctic  regions,  dry  and  hard ;  flakes  usually  small, 
frequently  very  fine ;  when  driven  by  the  wind,  very  hard  to  face. 
Esquimau  dogs  dislike  to  go  against  the  wind. 

The  glaciers  move  about  ninety-six  feet  during  winter.  At  mid- 
summer (June  21),  at  80°  N.  at  mid-day,  the  thermometer  stood  in 
the  sun  57°. 

Extremes  of  heat  at  Sitka,  for  forty-five  years,  equal  87.8°  to  —  4°. 
Average  for  the  year  equals  43.3°.  The  mercury  fell  below  zero  only 
four  years  out  of  the  forty-five.  The  climate  is  warmer  than  Boston, 
about  that  of  Tennessee.  The  great  cause  of  this  is  the  Japanese 
Current.  Sitka  has  the  most  rain  of  any  place  in  the  temperate 
climate. 

The  climate  of  Dakota  is  so  fine,  persons  poisoned  with  malaria 
soon  become  perfectly  well. 

Middle  Belt.  — The  climate  of  San  Francisco  is  agreeable  for 
work,  rather  than  for  laziness.  Sauntering  or  lounging  is  as  little 
possible  as  it  is  in  London.  It  is  never  too  hot,  never  too  cold,  to 
work.  In  the  summer  at  San  Francisco  it  is  cold  after  eleven  o'clock 
in  the  day.  The  cold  wind  rushes  in  through  the  Golden  Gate  in  a 
never-ceasing  gale,  hence  the  Golden  Gate  is  often  called  the  "  key- 
hole." The  fog  so  common  about  this  Gate,  retarded  its  discovery 
for  a  hundred  years. 

Southern  California  presents  a  most  invigorating  and  stimulating 
climate,  as  much  so  as  Minnesota,  without  being  so  intensely  cold. 
Nearly  every  day  can  be  spent  out  of  doors  by  invalids.  Such  flowers 
as  the  tuberose,  the  jessamine,  the  gilliflower,  and  heliotrope,  are  in 
bloom  in  the  open  garden  in  January.  The  vegetable  gardens  are  as 
green  as  they  are  in  New  England  in  June,  and  the  boys  are  seen  in 
winter  gathering  the  orange-crop.  Better  climate  than  Italy.  Winter 
resorts  at  Los  Angeles  and  Santa  Barbara. 


CLIMATE  293 

The  dryness  of  the  air  in  Minnesota  permits  a  lower  range  of 
temperature  without  frosts,  than  in  a  moist  climate.  The  climate 
of  Denver  permits  invalids  to  spend  several  hours  in  the  saddle 
nearly  every  day  of  the  three  hundred  and  sixty-five. 

Starting  at  the  one  hundredth  meridian  and  going  west,  the  climate 
becomes  more  and  more  arid.  Aridity  reaches  maximum  at  the  east- 
ern base  of  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade. 

Climate  of  American  Plateau  local  but  uniform.  Vapors  excluded 
from  sea  by  Cordilleras.  A  rainless  atmosphere,  perpetually  dry, 
tonic,  and  transparent.  Cloudless  sky.  No  dew  at  night.,)  Meat 
dries  (jerking).  Snow  evaporates  directly  without  melting.  Moun- 
tain ranges  run  north  and  south,  affording  constant  sunshine  in  the 
valleys,  like  Europe  and  Asia.  Extremes  of  temperature  for  day  and 
night  great ;  for  the  year  small. 

On  the  Rocky-Mountain  Plateau,  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea, 
the  grasses,  as  they  stand  on  the  soil,  are  cured  in  the  sun  during  the 
summer.  It  is  so  cold  and  dry  here,  the  grasses  do  not  rot.  The 
snows  are  so  fine  that  they  are  blown  into  drifts,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  land  is  not  covered.  In  these  natural  abodes  of  the  antelope  and 
buffalo,  our  domesticated  animals  live  through  the  winter  without 
man  supplying  them  with  food. 

Ocean  Curr3nts.  —  "  Everybody  understands  that  the  continents 
are  tally-ho  coaches  driving  toward  the  sunrise,  and  that  the  wind 
blows  in  the  faces  of  those  who  sit  on  the  front  seats  of  coaches.  The 
wind  that  bore  Columbus  across  the  Atlantic,  and  Magellan  across  the 
Pacific,  blows  in  the  faces  of  the  tally-ho  coaches  of  the  continents, 
driving  out  of  the  sunset  into  the  sunrise.  As  the  trade-winds  in  the 
tropics  blow  from  the  east  to  the  west,  at  a  speed  often  reaching 
fifteen  or  eighteen  miles  an  hour,  they  produce  a  current  in  the 
ocean,  moving  in  the  same  direction  across  the  tropical  zone.  When 
that  current  strikes  the  east  side  of  a  continent  it  divides,  and  part 
goes  north  and  part  goes  south.  As  the  portion  moving  toward  the 
pole  flows  away  from  the  tropics,  it  of  course  reaches  a  part  of  the 
earth  moving  with  less  rapidity  than  that  from  which  it  came.  Every- 
body sees  that  the  equator  must  revolve  with  far  greater  rapidity  than 
the  Arctic  circle,  simply  because  it  is  larger,  and  must  turn  around  in 


294  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

the  same  time.  The  motion  of  the  earth  decreases  from  the  equator 
to  the  pole.  As  the  warm  current  passes  from  the  equator  to  the 
North  Sea,  in  our  Atlantic  basin,  it  is  constantly  transferring  itself  to 
parallels  that  move  less  rapidly  than  those  which  it  left  at  its  last 
place  of  departure. 

"  The  water  does  net  at  once  lose  the  speed  of  eastern  motion  it 
had  nearer  the  equator,  and  so  slips  eastward  faster  than  the  northern 
water  it  meets.  Thus  arises  a  translation  of  a  great  body  of  water 
toward  the  sunrise.  In  this  way  originates  the  Gulf  Current,  the 
cause  of  which  was  a  mystery  for  ages.  So  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
under  the  sweep  of  trade-winds,  and  the  influence  of  the  difference  of 
temperature  between  the  torrid  and  the  northern  waters,  there  is 
produced  an  enormous  equatorial  current  moving  from  east  to  west. 

"On  reaching  the  Asiatic  coast  and  islands,  a  part  of  this  vast 
stream  goes  north  and  a  part  south.  The  portion  which  goes  north 
is,  of  course,  always  dropping  into  latitudes  where  the  motion  of  the 
earth  is  less  rapid,  and  therefore  there  is  a  translation  of  the  waters 
toward  North  America.  Thus  springs  up  a  gulf  current  in  the 
Pacific.  (Guyot:  Physical  Geography,  p.  65.)  It  pours  out  of  the 
East  Indies  as  ours  does  out  of  the  West  Indies.  It  leaves  the  coast 
of  China  and  Japan  as  ours  does  that  of  America.  It  is  called  the 
Japan  Current,  or  Black  Water,  and  farther  on  has  the  name  of 
the  North  Pacific  Current.  It  divides  at  the  westernmost  end  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands.  A  part  of  it  runs  through  Behring  Straits.  That 
is  the  reason  why  the  ice  never  drifts  through  those  straits  into  the 
Pacific,  and  why  the  transit  of  steamers  between  China  and  the  United 
States  is  likely  to  be  free  from  icebergs.  The  larger  part  of  the 
current  goes  south  of  the  Aleutian  Archipelago,  and  strikes  our 
continent  first  on  the  coast  of  Alaska.  As  the  Gulf  Current  warms 
England,  so  does  the  North- Pacific  Current  warm  Alaska  and  Oregon. 
But  the  Atlantic  is  more  open  to  the  Arctic  Sea  than  the  Pacific  is, 
and  so  the  latter  current  is  less  cooled  by  cold  water  from  the  north 
than  the  former."  —  From  Mr.  Joseph  Cook's  Monday  Lectures. 

The  climate  of  Newfoundland  is  treated  in  a  most  inter- 
esting manner  by  Joseph  Hatton,  in  his  book  on  that  noted 
island,  p.  188. 


VEGETABLE   LIFE  295 

[Teachers  should  place  upon  the  board  the  epitome  of  this  subject  in  four  parallel 
columns,  as  given  on  p.  296.  The  pupils  copy  in  iheir  blank-books,  study,  then  recite 
by  writing  on  the  board  or  on  paper.] 

IX.    LIFE 

For  convenience  of  studying  the  two  first  sub-divisions  of 
life,  the  country  may  be  divided,  just  as  it  was  for  climate, 
into  three  belts.  [Ask  the  pupils  to  name  them.] 

i.     VEGETABLE    LIFE 

Northern  Belt.  —  Mackenzie,  the  discoverer  of  the  Mackenzie 
River,  says  that  stunted  shrubs  of  the  hardiest  kinds  —  dwarf  birch, 
willows,  and  the  like  —  scantily  clothe  the  more  favored  spots 
along  the  water-courses;  while  elsewhere  various  lichens,  —  the  pecul- 
iar food  of  the  reindeer,  —  interspersed  with  stones  and  stagnant 
water-pools,  alone  characterize  the  dreary  scene. 

"Jamaica  is  the  black  man's  paradise.  A  bountiful  nature  waits 
upon  him,  tempting  him  to  "  sweet  do  nothing,"  by  the  abundance 
she  yields  at  the  slightest  of  solicitations. 

"The  yam  and  sweet  potato  vie  in  the  value  of  their  product;  the 
bread-fruit  drops  into  the  upraised  palm  of  the  negro;  the  plaintain 
and  banana  hang  a  load  of  food  at  his  open  cabin  window.  He 
has  to  add  a  little  salted  fish  from  the  shop  ;  and  to  this,  nature  adds 
a  delightful  condiment  in  the  fruit  of  the  ackie.  If  his  occasional 
treat  of  beef  is  tough,  he  has  but  to  rub  it  with  leaves  of  the  pawpaw, 
and  it  rivals  the  choicest  cuts  of  tenderloin. 

"With  leaves  of  hibiscus  he  polishes  his  Sunday  boots,  if  he  has 
any;  the  soap-berry  helps  him  to  wash  his  clothes;  "chew-stick" 
polishes  his  teeth;  cinchona  cures  his  fever ;  and,  if  he  has  any  other 
wants,  the  cocoanut-palm  is  there  with  its  oil,  fruit,  fibre,  etc.,  to 
supply  them. 

"Truly  a  bountiful  nature,  and  in  return  he  is  a  happy  child  of 
nature.  Care  runs  off  his  light-hearted  disposition  as  water  from  a 
duck's  back.'*—  The  Appalachia,  Vol.  III.  No.  3. 

2.     ANIMAL   LIFE 

[The  teacher  can  make  this  a  very  interesting  exercise  by  assigning  one  charac- 
teristic animal  to  each  child,  and  asking  the  pupils  to  be  ready  to  talk  for  his  animal 
at  such  a  time.  The  teacher  should  be  ready  to  supply  deficiencies,  by  way  of  anec- 
dotes and  stories.] 


296 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


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298  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

~  3.     HUMAN    LIFE 

Interesting  and  wonderful  as  this  topic  always  is  in  study- 
ing various  countries,  the  subject  is  never  more  fascinating 
than  in  reference  to  the  development  of  Human  Life  in 
North  America. 

Iceland  may  boast  of  an  authenticated  history  running 
back  one  thousand  years,  but  how  slow  its  progress  in  human 
growth  and  development !  The  rest  of  North  America  pre- 
sents an  illustration  of  rapid  growth  in  population,  wealth, 
and  refinement,  such  as  no  other  country  ever  enjoyed. 

Races. 

This  country  is  the  old  home  of  one  well-defined  race, 
and  the  new  home  of  nearly  all  the  other  races.  The  four 
races  are  named  below,  in  the  order  of  their  number. 

1.  CAUCASIAN.  —  Descended    from    different    colonies,   which   came 

from  Europe  and  settled  here  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
This  source  has  .been  constantly  increased  by  immigration. 
Found  all  over  the  country.  Numbers  fifty-six  million. 

2.  ETHIOPIAN.  —  Descended  from  slaves  introduced  into  the  United 

States  and  Spanish  America.  First  cargo  brought  over  in 
1619.  Found  principally  in  southern  part  of  United  States, 
and  in  West  Indies.  Now  numbers  ten  million.  Rapidly 
increasing. 

3.  AMERICAN.  —  Called  Indians,  aborigines,  or  original  inhabitants. 

America  is  their  natural  home.  Columbus  first  introduced 
this  race  to  the  learned  men  of  Europe  in  1493.  Indians  then 
owned  all  the  land.  Now  an  Indian  is  not  a  citizen,  and  can- 
not vote,  even  if  he  owns  property.  Two-thirds  of  the  Indians 
are  settled  on  separate  reservations,  under  government  protec- 
tion and  aid,  with  a  view  to  civilization.  Some  of  them  are 


RACES  299 

wealthy:  some  are  being  educated  at  Hampton  and  other 
schools.  Now  found  principally  in  British  America,  western 
part  United  States,  and  Mexico.  They  number  five  million 
in  all,  of  which  less  than  three  hundred  thousand  are  in  the 
United  States. 

4.  MONGOLIAN.  —  Esquimaux  and  Chinese.  The  former  are  superior 
to  the  Patagonians,  living  in  the  same  latitude.  They  are  skil- 
ful in  making  their  dress,  habitations,  and  tools;  but  they  are 
indolent,  dirty,  homely,  and  ignorant.  They  are  widely  scat- 
tered throughout  Greenland  and  British  America.  As  guides, 
they  have  been  of  great  service  to  Arctic  travellers.  The 
Chinese  have  only  recently  come  to  this  country  from  the 
vicinity  of  Hong  Kong.  They  are  not  a  fair  representation  of 
the  Chinese  people,  being  smaller  and  less  intelligent  than  the 
more  northern  people.  In  the  East  they  are  engaged  mostly  in 
the  laundry  business  ;  on  the  Pacific  shore,  in  various  kinds  of 
work.  They  are  peaceful,  industrious,  and  economical,  but 
have  aroused  much  hatred  among  their  fellow-workmen. 

The  American  people,  as  a  whole,  are  no  smaller  in  size 
than  the  people  of  other  grand  divisions  :  they  are  as  long- 
lived,  and  their  beauty  is  as  great.  Dr.  Brown -Sequard 
says,  "The  American  man  or  beast  is  more  enduring  of 
wounds  than  the  European."  The  face  of  the  Americans  is 
as  intelligent  as  that  of  Teutonic  peoples.  Americans  are 
good  fighters,  as  was  shown  in  the  civil  war. 

Population. 

No  country  in  the  world  has  grown,  in  the  number  of  its 
inhabitants,  so  rapidly  as  North  America.  In  order  that 
this  may  be  better  understood,  the  population  of  the  United 
States  for  the  last  forty  years  is  contrasted  with  that  of  Great 
Britain. 


300 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


United  States. 
1850 

23,000,000 

I860 
31,OOO,OOO 

1870 

39,  OOP,  OOP 

1880 

50,000,000 


Great  Britain. 
1851 

28,000,000 

1861 
29,OQO,OQO 

1871 

32,  OOP,  OOP 

1881 

3  5,  0  0  O,  O  O  O 


The  average  increase  is  thus  seen  to  be,  in  the  United 
States,  more  in  any  one  decade  than  it  has  been  in  Great 
Britain  during  the  forty  years.  What  is  the  reason  of  this? 

The  population  of  North  America  in  1880  was,  — 


In  Danish  America,  about  . 
In  Central  America      " 
In  British  America       " 
In  West  Indies  "      . 

In  Mexico  " 

In  United  States  " 


80,000 

3,000,000 

5,000,000 

5,000,000 

10,000,000 

50,000,000 


Total,  about 73,080,000 


which  is  more  than  twice  that  of  South  America,  and  less 
than  one-fourth  that  of  Europe.  What  proportion  is  in  the 

United  States?     [Mexico  has  the  same  as and ?] 

Of  the  fifty  millions  in  the  United  States,  one-fifth  are  black, 
one-fourth  are  voters,  one-seventh  are  foreign  born,  and 
one-eighth  cannot  write.  There  are  one  million  more  males 
than  females  in  the  United  States ;  but  in  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  where  the  denser 
population  is  found,  the  females  number  many  thousands 


POPULATION   AND  OCCUPATION  301 

more  than  the  males.  The  United  States  has  ten  million 
families,  making  an  average  of  five  persons  to  a  family. 

Males  are  in  excess  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
north  of  the  Ohio  ;  females,  east  and  south  of  these  rivers. 
The  foreign  population  is  mostly  north  of  the  Missouri,  Ohio, 
and  Potomac  rivers ;  the  colored  population,  south  of  the 
same  rivers. 

The  population  in  the  United  States  is  the  densest  in 
the  three  states  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode 
Island,  where  the  average  is  two  hundred  to  a  square  mile. 
In  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  the  population  averages  only 
seventeen  to  a  square  mile  ;  in  North  America,  eight  to  a 
square  mile ;  in  the  little  island  of  Barbadoes,  West  Indies, 
the  population  equals  one  thousand  persons  to  the  square 
mile.  Only  one  other  country  in  the  world  is  denser, 
namely,  Malta.  In  Australia  the  population  averages  only 
one  to  a  square  mile. 

One-fifth  of  the  population  live  below  100  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Two-fifths  of  the  population  live  below  500  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Three-fourths  of  the  population  live  below  1,000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level. 

Ninety-seven  per  cent  live  below  2,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Occupation. 
/ 

[What  does  your  geography  say  the  occupations  of  North 
America  are  ?  Name  them  in  the  order  of  their  importance.] 

The  five  leading  occupations,  named  in  order  of  their 
importance,  are  the  following  :  — 

Agriculture,  manufacturing,  mining,  fisheries,  and  grazing. 

f  Atlantic  Plain. 
Agriculture  abounds  in  the        ....      J  Central  Plain. 

California  Basin 


302  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

It  is  carried  on  more  or  less  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

In  the  East,  in  small  farms  ;  in  the  South,  upon  large 
plantations  ;  in  the  West,  upon  immense  farms. 

The  prairie- lands  of  the  West  were  prepared  by  nature  all 
ready  for  ploughing,  and  the  immediate  production  of  grain. 
They  now  fill  the  markets  of  the  world  with  flour  at  the 
cheapest  possible  rates.  Almost  a  revolution  in  the  world's 
agriculture  has  thus  been  produced. 

The  great  difference  between  farm  operations  in  the  East 
and  the  West  can  only  be  understood  by  describing  two 
great  farms  in  the  West.  For  that  purpose  we  have  selected 
one  in  California,  and  one  in  Dakota,  —  one  a  fruit  farm  ; 
the  other  a  grain  farm. 

A  Not  3d  California  Farm.  —  Norato  ranch,  owned  by  Mr.  De 
Long,  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  California.  It  is  located 
twenty-five  miles  north  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad.  The  property  comprises  a  fertile  valley,  and  the  hills  or 
mountains  which  surround  it.  The  size  of  the  ranch  is  sixteen  thou- 
sand acres,  equal  to  a  tract  of  land  seven  or  eight  miles  long,  and  two 
or  three  wide,  or  to  two-thirds  of  an  ordinary  town.  It  takes  over  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men  to  run  such  a  farm,  with  the  help  of  fifty  horses 
and  mules  and  several  engines.  From  twelve  hundred  to  fourteen 
hundred  cattle  are  kept,  and  seven  hundred  hogs,  five  hundred  hens, 
three  hundred  pigeons,  and  plenty  of  dogs  to  hunt  the  wild  game, 
which,  including  deer,  abounds  in  this  vicinity. 

One  thousand  acres  are  devoted  to  raising  grain,  one  thousand 
acres  are  kept  for  raising  grass  for  the  dairies  and  horses,  and  two 
thousand  tons  of  hay  are  annually  gathered.  The  ten  dairies  yield 
from  five  thousand  to  ten  thousand  pounds  of  butter  each  week. 
Horse-power  is  used  for  churning. 

But  this  ranch  is  particularly  famous  for  the  quantity,  quality,  and 
elegance  of  the  fruit  grown  thereon.  There  are  at  least  forty  thousand 
fruit-trees  now  growing  on  it.  The  visitor  who  should  come  to  this 


NOTED  FARMS  303 

charming  spot  in  the  early  springtime,  when  the  hills  are  green  in 
their  new  coat  of  verdure,  and  this  mammoth  orchard  is  in  bloom, 
would  be  excusable  in  indulging  in  the  most  extravagant  expression 
of  rapture  at  the  beautiful  sight.  Almost  the  entire  valley  seems 
turned  into  a  magnificent  bank  of  flowers  ;  while  the  air  is  fairly  heavy 
with  their  sweet  perfume,  reminding  the  delighted  spectator  of  the 
"  Vale  of  Cashmere,"  so  eloquently  described  by  Tom  Moore. 

This  large  orchard  is  divided  as  follows:  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  of  apple-trees,  fifty  acres  of  apricots,  ten  acres  of  Bartlett 
pears,  fifteen  acres  of  peaches,  besides  many  acres  of  plums,  crab- 
apples,  figs,  cherries,  nectarines,  English  walnuts,  almonds,  etc. ; 
while  eighty  acres  are  planted  to  vineyards  of  delicious  grapes. 

A  Bonanza  Farm.  — Mr.  Oliver  Dalrymple  has  been  at  the  head 
of  the  largest  grain-farm  in  this  country,  containing  seventy  five 
thousand  acres,  twenty-seven  thousand  of  which  were  under  cultiva- 
tion in  1882.  This  huge  farm  is  situated  near  Casselton  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Dakota,  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North. 

A  farm  of  this  size  is  divided  into-  smaller  farms  of  about  six 
thousand  acres  each,  and  placed  under  a  superintendent,  with  book- 
keeper, headquarter's  building,  a  storehouse  for  supplies,  etc.  The 
six  thousand  acres  is  sub-divided  into  three  divisions  of  two  thousand 
acres  each,  under  the  charge  of  a  foreman.  Each  of  these  smaller  farms 
has  its  own  set  of  buildings,  stables,  granary,  boarding-house,  machine 
and  blacksmith  shop,  all  connected  with  the  superintendent's  office 
by  telephone.  Supplies,  tools,  and  machinery  are  purchased  at  whole- 
sale, and  shipped  by  the  carload.  The  profits  in  1882  on  the  twenty- 
seven  thousand  acres  of  wheat  were  not  less  than  two  hundred  and 
sixteen  thousand  dollars.  The  name  "bonanza  farming"  seems  to 
have  been  \vell  given. 

On  this  great  farm  four  hundred  men  are  employed  in  harvesting, 
six  hundred  in  threshing;  two  hundred  and  fifty  pairs  of  horses  or 
mules  are  used,  two  hundred  gang-ploughs,  a  hundred  and  fifteen 
self-binding  reapers,  and  twenty  steam-threshers. 

The  sight  of  the  immense  wheat-fields,  stretching  away  farther 
than  the  eye  can  reach,  in  one  unbroken  sea  of  golden  waves,  is  grand 
beyond  description. 

About  the  ist  of    August 'the   harvester  is  heard  throughout  the 


304  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  Each  machine  is  drawn  by  three 
horses ;  and  with  each  gang  there  is  a  superintendent,  who  rides 
along  on  horseback,  and  directs  the  work  of  the  drivers.  The  long 
procession  of  reaping-machines  move,  one  after  the  other,  like  so 
many  batteries  of  artillery;  a  hundred  of  them  cutting  a  swath  one- 
fifth  of  a  mile  in  width.  There  are  also  mounted  repairers,  who  carry 
with  them  the  tools  for  repairing  any  break  in  the  machines. 

"  Carleton  "  thus  describes  the  scene, — 

"Just  think  of  a  sea  of  wheat,  containing  twenty  square  miles, — 
thirteen  thousand  acres, — rich,  ripe,  golden,  the  winds  rippling  over 
it.  As  far  as  the  eye  can  see,  there  is  the  same  russet  hue.  Far 
away  on  the  horizon  you  behold  an  army  sweeping  along  in  grand 
procession.  Riding  on  to  meet  it,  you  see  a  major-general  on  horse- 
back,—  the  superintendent;  two  brigadiers  on  horseback,  —  repairers, 
No  swords  flash  in  the  sunlight,  but  their  weapons  are  monkey- 
wrenches  and  hammers.  No  brass  band,  no  drum-beat,  nor  shrill  note 
of  the  fife;  but  the  army  moves  on,  —  a  solid  phalanx  of  twenty-four 
self-binding  reapers,  —  to  the  music  of  its  own  machinery.  At  one 
sweep,  in  a  twinkling,  a* swath  of  a  hundred  and  ninety-two  feet  has 
been  cut  and  bound,  the  reapers  tossing  the  bundles  almost  disdain- 
fully into  the  air,  each  binder  doing  the  work  of  six  men." — p.  98, 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  by  H.  J.  WIN  son. 

Facts  in  Reference  to  Agriculture. 

There  are  said  to  be  over  four  million  farmers  and 
planters  in  the  United  States  of  America,  or  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  adult  males.  The  United  States  produces  FOUR- 
FIFTHS  of  all  the  cotton  raised  in  the  world. 

The  chief  agricultural  productions,  in  the  order  of  latitude, 
beginning  at  the  north  :  — 


GRAINS. 

Barley. 

Oats. 

Rye. 

Wheat. 

Maize. 

Rice. 


OTHER    PLANTS. 

Potatoes. 

Hay. 

Hemp. 

Tobacco. 

Cotton. 

Sugar. 


AGRICULTURAL  COMPARISONS  305 

Comparisons. 

(1880.) 

Illinois  raised  more  corn  and  oats. 

New  York  raised  more  hay  and  potatoes. 

California  raised  more  barley,  wine,  and  wheat. 

Kentucky  raised  the  most  tobacco. 

Alabama  raised  the  most  cotton. 

Louisiana  raised  the  most  sugar. 

South  Carolina  raised  the  most  rice. 

Texas  raised  the  most  stock. 

Notice  the  sections  giving  the  above  facts  in  the  maps  in 
Warren's  Geography. 

[The  teacher  can  make  these  more  effective  by  showing  the  sections  on  the  board 
with  colored  crayons.] 

There  were  raised  in  the  United  States  in  1884,  2,571,- 
300,000  pounds  of  cotton.  If  each  bale  weigh  450  pounds, 
how  many  bales  were  there  ?  Let  the  teacher'give  the  size 
of  a  bale  of  cotton,  and  see  how  large  a  fortification  so 
much  cotton  would  make. 

Manufacturing. 

[Where  carried  on?] 

In  the  East. 

North  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio,  because  of  the  abundant 
water-power. 

The  leading  manufacturing  States  in  the  United  States, 
and  north  of  these  two  rivers,  are  :  — 

(i)  New  York,  (2).  Pennsylvania,  (3)  Massachusetts, 
(4)  Illinois,  (5)  Ohio,  (6)  New  Jersey. 


306  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

The  following  comprise  the  articles  of  greatest  value 
manufactured  in  North  America  :  — 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products,  iron  and  steel,  clothing, 
machinery,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  woollen  goods. 

In  order  to  make  all  these  and  other  articles,  it  requires 
in  the  UNITED  STATES  alone,  TWO  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  THOU- 
SAND manufacturing  establishments,  employing  nearly  THREE 
MILLION  hands,  and  making  each  year  material  worth  over 

FIVE   BILLION  DOLLARS. 

Eight  Principal  Manufacturing  Cities. 
(1880.) 

1.  Philadelphia.     Machinery,  woollen  goods,  cotton  goods,  clothing, 

mixed  textiles. 

2.  New  York.     Printing,  men's  clothing,  tobacco,  liquor,  foundery. 

3.  Chicago.     Slaughtering,  clothing,  foundery,  iron  and  steel. 

4.  Brooklyn.     Sugar  refinery,  foundery,  drugs. 

5.  Pittsburg.     Iron  and  steel. 

6.  St.  Louis.     Iron  and  steel. 

7.  Boston.    Sugar  refined,  men's  clothing,  foundery  and  machine  shop, 

printing  and  publishing. 

8.  Cincinnati.     Men's  clothing,  slaughtering  and  meat-packing,  foun- 

dery, boots  and  shoes. 

(The  above  cities  are  named  in  the  order  of  the  value  of  their 
manufactured  goods.  Further  facts  about  manufactures  are  given 
under  Productions,  p.  325) 

Mining. 

[Where?     What?] 

Location.  —  Mostly  in  the  Highland  Region. 
In  the  Eastern  Highlands  are  found  extensive  mines  of 
coal  and  iron.      In  Eastern    Pennsylvania    abound    mines 
of  hard  coal  (Mauch  Chunk  and  Scranton)  ;  Western  Pemv 
sylvania,  soft  coal  and  iron  (Pittsburg). 


: 


MINING  307 

[From  what  city  would  you  ship  a  cargo  of  hard  coal  to 
Boston  ?] 

In  the  Western  Highlands  are  found  numerous  mines  of 
silver  and  gold.  Silver-mines  are  frequently  seen  in  the 
plateau-region  of  the  United  States,  as  in  Colorado,  Nevada, 
and  Arizona,  and  in  Mexico,  north  of  the  capital.  Gold  is 
found  all  through  the  Western  Highlands,  but  especially  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada. 

Gold.  —  The  placers  which  contain  gold  in  its  native  state,  mixed 
with  sand  and  gravel,  are  the  richest  and  most  profitable  sources  of 
the  metal  The  first  discoveries  of  a  gold-mining  region  are  naturally 
of  this  class,  but  they  are  rapidly  exhausted.  Alder  Gulch,  in  Mon- 
tana, has  produced  more  than  $30,000,000.  In  Colorado,  the  gold  is 
found  with  copper  and  iron  pyrites;"  in  Nevada,  with  silver. 

In  California  the  gold  is  free,  and  at  first  it  was  separated  from 
the  dirt  by  a  pan  and  rocker.  Then  a  trough  was  used,  and  then  a 
sluice,  through  which  a  stream  of  water  was  constantly  running.  In 
time  came  hydraulic  mining,  by  which  an  enormous  and  powerful 
stream  of  water  was  directed,  under  great  pressure,  against  a  bank  or 
hillside  containing  placer-gold.  The  earth  thus  torn  down  was  car- 
ried by  the  water  into  the  sluice,  and  the  expense  of  shovelling  saved. 
This  method  of  mining  destroyed  the  beauty  of  the  country,  and 
filled  up  the  rivers  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Legislature  has  forbid- 
den it.  Now  quartz-mining  is  the  one  usually  employed.  The  rock 
is  pulverized  by  heavy  machinery,  and  the  gold  separated  by  the  help 
of  mercury  or  sulphurets.  This  method  of  mining  requires  capital 
and  education,  and  reduces  gold  and  silver  mining  to  regular  business 
enterprises. 

The  rush,  excitement,  and  lawlessness  which  followed  the  acci- 
dental discovery  of  gold  in  California,  in  1848,  by  James  Marshal!, 
have  been  repeated  in  the  Black  Hills  and  in  Leadville. 

Silver.  —  Silver  is  as  widely  distributed  in  the  Western  Highlands 
as  gold.  Colorado,  Montana,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Arizona  are  at 
present  the  principal  silver- producing  States.  The  first  named  pro- 


308  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

duces  about  one-half.  The  Comstock  Lode  at  Virginia  City,  Nev., 
is  the  richest  deposit  of  silver  in  the  world.  In  one  year,  $23,000,000 
in  gold  and  silver  were  taken  from  this  lode.  A  tunnel  twenty  thou- 
sand feet  long,  and  costing  nearly  $5,000,000,  has  been  carried  into 
the  side  of  the  mountain  containing  this  silver  deposit,  in  order  to 
drain  and  ventilate  the  mine  better,  and  also  as  an  easier  exit  for  the 
ore  than  the  shaft. 

[See  Compendium  of  North  America^  p.  154.] 

Lead  and  copper  are  found  in  the  largest  quantities  in  the 
valley  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  Copper-mines  abound  in 
and  about  Lake  Superior.,  [What  island  celebrated  for 
copper-mines  ?] 

Many  valuable  metals  and  minerals  are  found  in  the 
mountains  of  North  Carolina.  ' 

Nearly  every  metal  of  any  value  has  been  found  in  great 
abundance  in  this  country  except  tin.  [Where  do  we  get 
our  tin?] 

Grazing. 

^ 

This  business  is  now  carried  on  in  New  Mexico,  Colorado, 
Texas,  Kansas,  and  Oregon.  Many  of  the  large  ranches  are 
owned  by  great  cattle-companies  of  the  East  or  Europe. 
Millions  of  dollars  from  England  and  Scotland  have  been 
invested  in  these  Western  cattle-companies.  Some  com- 
panies own  as  many  as  a  hundred  thousand  cattle. 
(  In  these  high  latitudes,  the  grass  cures  on  the  stem,  so 
very  little  feeding  is  necessary.  Shelter  is  rarely  provided. 
When  a  blizzard  rages,  the  cattle  huddle  close  together : 
the  strongest  push  to  the  centre,  and  the  weakest  are 
crowded  to  the  outside,  where  many  of  them  freeze  to 
death. 

.  Most  of  these  great  ranches  are  on  Government  land,  and 
some  of  them  have  been  "  run "  by  New-England  young 


GRAZING  309 

men.  In  Kansas  the  cattle-men  are  obliged  to  own  their 
own  land.  A  ranch  near  Emporia  contains  thirty  thousand 
acres,  well  fenced  with  wire,  and  divided  into  convenient 
sections.  The  cattle  are  kept  in  "  bunches  "  of  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five,  for  better  care  and  health. 

When  the  cattle  are  ready  for  market,  they  are  driven  to 
the  nearest  railroad,  and  loaded  on  the  cars,  about  eighteen 
being  put  into  a  car.  The  railroads  are  now  obliged  by  law 
to  water  them,  and  at  long  intervals  to  take  them  out,  and 
rest  and  feed  them.  The  trains  move  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  night.  Many  of  these  cattle  are  slaughtered  in 
Chicago,  and  the  beef  sent  farther  east  in  refrigerator-cars. 

From  that  interesting  book  on  this  subject,  entitled 
"  Ranch  Notes,"  by  R.  Aldridge,  London,  the  following 
extract  is  taken  :  — 

"  The  work  of  taking  care  of  cattle  was  not  severe.  We 
got  up  generally  about  sunrise,  and,  after  a  hasty  breakfast, 
saddled  our  horses,  and  went  round  the  cattle,  counting 
them  as  we  passed  along.  If  any  had  wandered  too  far,  we 
drove  them  back.  At  four  P.M.  we  rode  out  again,  and 
quietly  worked  the  cattle  towards  home.  After  sundown 
we  rounded  them  up  close  to  the  shanty,  and  held  them 
there  till  they  began  to  lie  down  ;  after  which  we  went  in  to 
supper,  and  '  turned-in  '  pretty  early." 

"Sometimes  a  few  of  our  cattle  would  stray  away,  and  give 
us  some  trouble  to  discover  them.  When  this  happened, 
we  usually  found  them  in  one  of  the  neighboring  herds,  of 
which  there  were  three  within  a  radius  of  five  miles. 

[In  the  above  book  will  be  found  interesting  accounts  of  "  round-ups,"  "brand- 
ing," and  the  pleasant  side  of  a  cowboy's  life  See,  also,  finely  illustrated  article  in 
Century  Magazine,  February,  1888. J 


310  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Fishing. 

Cold-water  seas  are  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  three 
leading  commercial  food-fishes ;  viz.,  the  cod,  herring,  and 
the  mackerel.  The  Arctic  Current,  which  washes  the  coast 
of  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  Canada,  and  a  part  of  the 
United  States,  is  the  source  of  the  vast  fishing  wealth  of  this 
part  of  the  world.  As  the  farmer  depends  upon  the  rain 
and  sun  for  his  crops,  so  do  the  fishermen  depend  upon  this 
Arctic  Current  for  a  never-failing  supply  of  fish. 

This  Arctic,  or  Labrador,  Current  brings  with  it,  to  these 
fishing  and  spawning  grounds,  the  food  on  which  the  fish 
thrive ;  and  the  supply  never  fails.  This  food  consists  of  a 
kind  of  slime,  made  up  of  minute  marine  life,  "  diatoms  " 
as  they  are  called,  found  most  abundant  in  the  coldest  water, 
or  near  the  neighborhood  of  icebergs. 

Minute  creatures  (crustaceans,  such  as  the  crab,  cray- 
fish, shrimp,  etc.)  feed  upon  this  slime,  and  become,  in 
turn,  food  for  the  herring;  which  are  devoured  by  the 
cod. 

The  Great  Banks,  directly  south  of  Newfoundland,  form  a 
regular  sub-marine  plateau.  Here  the  water  varies  from  fifty 
feet  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  At  the  west  end  of  the 
Banks  the  water  suddenly  becomes  about  nine  thousand  feet 
deep.  These  fishing-grounds  extend  two  hundred  miles  in 
length,  and  about  seventy  in  breadth.  Ever  since  Cabot 
discovered  this  coast,  these  "  cod  meadows "  have  been 
fished  by  all  the  nations  of  the  world,  without  showing  any 
decrease  in  productiveness. 

The  sections  of  North  America  engaged  in  the  fishing 
business  are  named  in  order,  —  Canada,  New- England  States, 


FISHING  311 

South- Atlantic  States,  Middle  States,  Pacific  States  and  Terri- 
tories, and  the  Great  Lakes. 

f  The  different  kinds  of  fishing  are,  whale-fishing  in  Arctic 
seas ;  cod,  herring,  and  mackerel,  on  the  Banks ;  oyster- 
fishing  on  the  coast  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  New  Jersey,  and 
Rhode  Island  ;  lobster-fishing  along  the  New-England  coast ; 
seal-fishing  on  the  St.  Paul  Islands,  Alaska ;  salmon-fishing, 
Columbia  River,  Oregon ;  white-fishing  in  the  Great  Lakes. 

Canada  caught,  in  1883,  four  million  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  cod. 

The  amount  caught  in  a  year  in  the  United  States,  of  the 
different  kinds  of  fish,  is  estimated  to  be  worth  a  hundred 
million  dollars.  To  do  this  business  requires  a  hundred  and 
forty  thousand  men,  and  about  seven  thousand  vessels. 

The  New-England  States  employ  forty  thousand  men  and 
twenty-two  hundred  vessels,  and  they  obtain  about  fifteen 
million  dollars'  worth  of  fish  in  a  single  year.  The  principal 
places  engaged  in  the  work  in  this  part  of  the  country  are 
the  following,  named  according  to  the  value  of  the  "catch  :  " 
Gloucester,  New  Bedford,  Eastport,  Boston,  Provincetown, 
and  Portland. 

The  South-Atlantic  States  employ  more  men,  but  do  not 
obtain  so  much  fish  by  one-third. 

Language. 

The  largest  proportion  of  the  people  in  this  country  speak 
the  English  language.  There  is,  however,  considerable 
difference  between  the  pronunciation  and  use  of  words  in 
the  various  sections. 

The  standard  is  found  in  Webster's  and  Worcester's 
dictionaries. 


312  METHODS  AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Lippincott's  Gazetteer  is  considered  the  standard  for 
geographical  names.  Teachers  ought  not  to  expect  children 
to  be  very  critical  about  the  pronunciation  of  difficult  geo- 
graphical names. 

There  are  many  Germans  in  the  West,  and  in  some  cities 
the  German  language  has  been  taught  in  the  public  schools. 

In  parts  of  Canada  and  Louisiana  a  kind  of  French  pre- 
vails. In  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies,  Spanish  is  the 
prevailing  tongue. 

The  ten  million  American  Indians  in  North  and  South 
America  are  said  to  speak  two  thousand  dialects,  —  as  many 
dialects  as  there  are  in  the  nine  hundred  million  in  Asia  and 
Europe. 

Although  Alaska  belongs  to  the  United  States,  only  one- 
eighteenth  of  the  people  speak  English ;  and  these  are  all 
found  in  three  settlements. 

Manners  and  Customs. 

[Manners  and  customs  must  be  gathered  largely  from  travel,  and  books  on  travel. 
A  pleasant  way  to  develop  this  with  a  class  is  to  divide  the  blackboard  into  four 
spaces.  Head  two  adjacent  columns  with  some  nations  or  peoples  as  different  as  possi- 
ble, the  pupils  to  do  the  same  on  paper;  and  then  fill  in  the  peculiarities  as  fast  as 
facts  are  gathered.  The  teacher  to  help  only  when  the  class  are  exhausted.  Illustra- 
tions of  this  method  follow.] 


INDIANS. 

Their  manners  differ  in  different 
tribes. 

They  receive  such  names  as  Big 
Crow,  Whirlwind,  Arrow  Head, 
Laughing  Water,  etc. 

They  have  much  imagination. 

They  bury  in  trees,  sitting  post- 
ure. They  frequently  move.  The 
women  do  the  hard  work.  The 


ESQUIMAUX. 

Not  numerous  in  North 
America. 

Houses  small,  built  of  stone 
and  turf.  Lighted  and  heated  by 
a  lamp. 

The  house  is  cleaned  in  spring 
by  removing  the  roof,  and  moving 
away  while  the  rains  of  summer 
wash  it. 


MANNERS   AND  CUSTOMS 


313 


older  and  uglier  the  woman, 
the  more  work  laid  upon  her. 

Dress  in  skins  ;  children  naked. 
Indians  eat  meat  raw ;  like  the 
marrow. 

Very  superstitious. 

Easily  surprised,  yet  often 
stolid.  Indifferent  to  pain. 

YANKEES. 

Live  in  New  England. 

Descended  from  the  Puritans. 

Sharp-faced,  angular,  tall,  and 
thin. 

Hard-working,  close,  economi- 
cal, self-possessed. 

Believe  in  the  common  school 
and  college.  Generally  intelli- 
gent. Very  inventive,  mechanical, 
shrewd. 

They  have  good  roads ;  build 
houses  ot  wood,  and  keep  them 
painted.  Cities  clean  ;  streets 
crooked.  Thanksgiving  turkey 
and  baked  beans. 

Keep  Sunday. 

Small  farms. 

ALASKA. 

Natives  are  Indians  and  Esqui- 
maux. Indians  on  the  Yukon 
River  called  Innuits.  Natives  on 
the  western  islands  called  Aleuts. 
Houses  low,  square  hole  in  top. 
Enter  on  hands  and  knees.  Clothes 
made  of  dressed  deerskin.  Travel 
with  dogs  and  sleds.  Can  make 
birch  canoes  twelve  feet  long. 


He t still  catches  the  seal  with 
harpoon  and  bladder.  The  women 
do  most  of  the  domestic  work. 
Men  and  women  dress  very  nearly 
alike. 

He  calls  his  long  boat  a  kyak. 

Keeps  many  dogs. 

WESTERNERS. 

Descended  from  New  England 
and  Europe  by  immigration. 

Large,  pleasant  face,  open,  fair, 
generous. 

They  are  social,  good-natured, 
patriotic.  Boastful  sometimes. 
Have  large  ideas.  Full  of  busi- 
ness. Carry  it  on  in  a  large  way. 
Not  so  particular  about  little 
things. 

Cities  laid  out  with  wide  and 
straight  streets. 

"  Rushing  "  in  their  business. 
Always  pushing  and  active. 

Continental  Sunday. 

Ranches. 

Large  farms. 

MEXICO. 

People  consist  of  Indians, 
Creoles,  Mestizo  (white  father  and 
Indian  mother).  Indians  of  me- 
dium height,  stout ;  wear  simple 
dress,  no  shoes.  House,  adobe; 
mats  of  rushes  or  palm-leaves  for 
seats.  Food,  vegetables  and 
fruits.  Great  gamblers,  and  very 
lazy. 


3*4 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Place  before  their  houses  the 
"  totem  pole." 

Indians  are  dirty  and  lazy. 

Live  largely  on  fish,  berries. 

They  are  treacherous,  untruth- 
ful. Do  not  farm,  because  there 
is  no  level  land. 

They  are  not  acquainted  with 
domestic  animals.  There  are  only 
four  horses  in  the  country. 


CANADA. 

People  mostly  English  or 
French. 

The  Canadians  are  fine,  tall, 
handsome,  powerful  men.  The 
girls  are  robust,  strong,  with  red 
cheeks. 

All  enjoy  winter  sports,  such  as 
tobogganing,  skating,  sleighing, 
curling,  lacrosse,  etc.  At  Montreal 
there  is  a  week  of  these  sports 
called  the  Carnival. 

Men  and  women  dress  in  furs, 
and  costumes  of  bright  colors,  and 
thick  flannels. 


When  a  servant  is  hired,  the 
rest  of  the  family  live  with  him. 

Assassinations  are  common. 
Nearly  all  the  men  and  women 
smoke. 


WEST  INDIES. 

Negroes,  Creoles,  and  Span- 
iards are  the  principal  people. 

Labor  cheap.  Food  cheap. 
Land  and  rent  cheap. 

Houses  small  and  poor.  Ham- 
mocks instead  of  beds.  Walls  of 
houses  gayly  colored;  sometimes 
made  of  glutinous  earth,  which 
hardens. 

People  rise  at  six,  take  a  cup 
of  chocolate  and  fruit;  breakfast 
at  twelve,  then  the  siesta.  Work 
from  two  to  four ;  dinner  at  six. 

Sunday  is  a  fete  day. 


("The  teacher  can  now  read  with  profit  to  the  class,  or  have  them  read  to  him,  from 
Frances  Parkman's  Oregon  Trail,  chap,  xviii.  p.  251,  A  Mountain  Hunt.] 


Education. 


In  considering  this  subject,  we  only  need  to  speak  of 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  as  little  attention  is  paid  to 
education  in  other  parts  of  the  continent. 


EDUCATION  315 

Canada. 

There  is  a  complete  system  of  elementary  education  here, 
free  to  all,  and  supported  by,  and  under  the  control  of,  each 
separate  province.  Ontario  is  said  to  have  the  best  schools. 
One-third  of  the  teachers  ^are  men.  The  average  .attend- 
ance of  the  pupils  is  poor,  and  the  pay  of  the  teachers  low. 

United  States. 

In  the  United  States,  as  in  Canada,  the  separate  States 
control  the  public-school  systems.  The  United  States  has 
only  two  schools ;  viz.,  the  military  academy  at  West  Point, 
and  the  naval  academy  at  Annapolis.  The  systems  in  the 
different  States  differ  mostly  in  details.  In  every  State, 
instruction  is  provided  free  of  cost  to  all  children  during 
school  age. '  The  State  has  some  general  oversight ;  but 
the  cities  and  towns  look  after  the  expenses  for  education, 
and  have  control  of  the  teachers,  through  superintendents 
and  boards  of  education. 

Not  only  are  there  many  primary  and  grammar  schools, 
but  the  high  schools  and  colleges  are  well  patronized.  In 
these  high  schools  the  poor  boy  can  prepare  for  college,  and 
in  some  States  he  can  go  through  college  without  paying 
any  tuition.  Many  States  also  provide  text-books  and 
stationery  free  of  cost.  If  a  boy  or  girl  wishes  to  become 
a  teacher,  he  can  attend  the  State  or  city  Normal  School, 
and  learn  the  business  of  education. 

Numerous  conventions  and  associations  of  teachers  and 
educators,  county  institutes,  and  summer  schools  are  held, 
especially  during  the  summer  vacation,  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  education  of  the  youth.  At  these  meetings 


316  METHODS    AND   AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

experienced  teachers  lecture  and  read  papers  on  this  subject. 
At  one  of  these  meetings  recently  held  in  Chicago,  fifteen 
thousand  teachers  are  said  to  have  been  present. 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  reports  in 
the  country  twelve  million  children  enrolled  in  the  different 
schools,  taught  by  three  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
teachers,  at  a  total  expense  for  salaries,  fuel,  and  official 
service,  of  one  hundred  and  fourteen  million  dollars. 

Some  of  the  noted  colleges  are  Harvard,  Yale,  Dartmouth, 
Amherst,  Williams,  Brown,  Bowdoin,  Columbia,  Cornell, 
Johns  Hopkins,  Boston  University,  Princeton,  Wesleyan 
University,  University  of  Michigan,  University  of  Ohio, 
University  of  Minnesota,  Washington  University,  etc.  Most 
of  these  are  for  men. 

Vassar,  Wellesley,  Smith,  Harvard  Annex,  are  some  of 
the  colleges  for  women. 

[Where  are  these  colleges  situated  ?] 

The  people  of  the  United  States  are  great  readers  of 
papers,  magazines,  and  books.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  about  ten  thousand  papers  are  now  published  in  this 
country,  some  of  them  printing  three  hundred  thousand 
copies  a  day ;  and  some  magazines  run  off  a  single  edition  \ 
of  two  hundred  thousand  numbers. 

The  noted  poets,  historians,  critics,  and  novelists  of  this 
country  are  now  read  the  world  over.  Reference  is  made 
to  such  men  as  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Whittier,  Holmes,  and 
Bryant;  Bancroft,  Motley,  and  Prescott ;  Emerson,  Irving, 
Whipple,  and  Stedman ;  Cooper,  Hawthorne,  Mrs.  Stowe, 
and  Mrs.  Jackson. 

To  show  the  interest  taken  here  in  science  and  invention, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  such  names  as  Franklin, 


RELIGION    \ND  GOVERNMENT  317 

Agassiz,  Silliman,  Dana,  Henry,   Youmans,  Young,  Morse, 
Fulton,  Whitney,  Hoe,  Bell,  and  Edison. 

[What  ideas  are  suggested  by  these  names?] 

Religion. 

In  Mexico,  Central  America,  West  Indies,  and  some  parts 
of  Canada,  the  Catholic  religion  prevails. 

In  the  United  States  perfect  religious  toleration  is  allowed, 
and  hence  various  denominations  are  found  side  by  side. 

One-eighth  of  the  population  is  said  to  be  Catholic. 

The  leading  denominations  are  sometimes  thus  given  :  — 


1  Methodist. 

2  Baptist. 

3  Catholic. 

4  Lutheran. 

5  Presbyterian. 

6  Christian. 


7  Congregational. 

8  Episcopal. 
15  Mormon. 

25  Universalist. 
27  Unitarian. 


There  are  fourteen  thousand  Jews,  members  of  two  hun- 
dred and  two  synagogues  :  Jewish  population,  two  hundred 
and  thirty  thousand. 

There  are  over  forty  different  denominations  in  the 
United  States.  (See  Dr.  Dorchester's  Recent  Statistics.} 

Government. 

Most  of  the  different  forms  of  government  are  representa- 
tive in  North  America  (and  in  South  America  also),  rather 
than  hereditary. 

Danish  America  consists  of  Greenland  and  Iceland,  both 
colonies  of  Denmark,  and  under  the  control  of  Danish 
governors.  One  of  the  governors  lives  in  simplicity  at 


318  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Lichtenfels ;  the  other  at  Reikiavik,  the  principal  town  in 
Iceland. 

In  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  the  Governor-General,  appointed  by  the  British 
sovereign.  A  Parliament,  composed  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Commons,  makes  the  laws.  The  senators  are  appointed 
instead  of  elected.  Each  province  has  a  legislature. 

[See  picture  of  Parliament  House,  Ottawa,  in  Apple  ton's 
Geography,  p.  26.] 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  is  a  Federal  Repub- 
lic, deriving  its  power  from  the  Constitution  adopted  one 
hundred  years  ago,  in  1 788. 

There  are,  according  to  this  document,  three  branches  of 
the  Government :  the  Legislative,  which  makes  the  laws ; 
the  Judicial,  which  interprets  the  laws  ;  the  Executive,  which 
sees  that  the  laws  are  obeyed. 

The  laws  of  the  country  are  made  by  Congress,  which 
meets  in  Washington  every  December.  The  senators  are 
chosen  by  the  State  Legislature  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
There  are  seventy-six  senators  in  the  Senate.  The  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States  is  the  presiding  officer. 

The  representatives  are  elected  directly  by  the  people  for 
two  years.  Each  State  is  entitled  to  one  for  every  one 
hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand  of  its  inhabitants,  so  there 
are  now  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  representatives ; 
New  York  having  thirty-four,  the  largest  number  of  any  one 
State.  Then  come  in  order,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
and  Missouri. 

The  President  is  the  highest  officer  in  the  country,  often 
called  the  "Chief  Executive."  He  is  elected  every  four 
years,  by  electors  chosen  by  the  people.  He  resides  in  the 
White  House  at  Washington.  / 


GOVERNMENT  319 

His  salary  is  fifty  thousand  dollars  a  year.  The  V ice- 
President  receives  eight  thousand  dollars ;  each  senator 
and  representative  five  thousand  dollars  each,  and  twenty 
per  cent  mileage. 

For  a  more  extended  consideration  of  this  subject,  see 
Harper's  Geography,  p.  35  ;  Analysis  of  Civil  Government, 
by  Townsend  ;  Civil  Government,  by  Martin  ;  by  Mowry. 

Mexico  is  a  republic  of  twenty-seven  States,  and  the 
territory  of  Lower  California.  The  form  of  government  was 
modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States. 

Cuba  is  governed  by  a  Captain-General,  appointed  by  the 
Spanish  Crown. 


CHAPTER   XV 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NORTH  AMEEICA,  Concluded 


THE  original  source  of  wealth  is  the  bounty  of  God  in  nature. — 
Dr.  Francis  Wayland. 

THE  fertility  of  the  soil  of  North  America;  its  position,  in  the 
midst  of  the  oceans,  between  the  extremes  of  Europe  and  Asia,  facil- 
itating commerce  with  these  worlds  ;  the  proximity  of  the  rich  tropical 
countries  of  Central  and  South  America,  towards  which,  as  by  a 
natural  descent,  it  is  borne  by  the  waters  of  the  Misissippi,  and  of  its 
thousand  tributaries'  streams,  —  all  these  advantages  seem  to  promise 
its  labor  and  activity  a  prosperity  without  example  — A.  Guyot. 

321 


BOOKS   FOR   CONSULTATION 


BENJAMIN'S  ATLANTIC  ISLANDS.    Illustrated. 
CENSUS  REPORTS,  1880. 
DODGE'S  INDIAN  TRAITS. 
HAZARD'S  SANTO  DOMINGO. 
KING'S  GREAT  SOUTH.    Illustrated. 
LAMB'S  HOMES  OF  AMERICA.    Illustrated. 
LORNE'S  CANADIAN  PICTURES.    Illustrated. 
MANNING'S  AMERICAN  PICTURES.    Illustrated. 
MARSHALL'S  THROUGH  AMERICA.    Illustrated. 
MOWRY'S  STUDIES  IN  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 
NIAGARA.    Illustrated. 
NASH'S  OREGON. 
PARKMAN'S  OREGON  TRAIL. 
PICTURESQUE  AMERICA.    Illustrated 
SMALLEY'S  NORTHERN  PACIFIC. 
WILLIAMS'S  AMERICA.    Illustrated. 

322 


CHAPTER   XV 

WHAT  TO  TEACH  ON  NOETH  AMERICA,  Concluded 

PRODUCTIONS:  IN  GREENLAND  — IN  ICELAND  — IN  CANADA  —  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
—  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTIONS  —  MANUFACTURING  PRODUCTIONS  —  MINING  PRO- 
DUCTIONS—  IN  MEXICO  —  IN  THE  WEST  INDIES  — COMMERCE  —  EXPORTS  —  CAN- 
ADA EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS  —  THE  UNITED-STATES  EXPORTS — THE  UNITED- 
STATES  IMPORTS— MEXICO— THE  WEST  INDIES  —  REPRESENTATIVE  CITIES: 

UPERNAVIK  —  SITKA  —  CHICAGO  —  WASHINGTON  —  NEW     ORLEANS  —  MEXICO.  — 
JOURNEYS  —  COMPARISONS 

X.    PRODUCTIONS    0£  NORTH    AMERICA 

As  North  America  stretches  through  every  zone,  and  has, 
on  account  of  its  variety  of  latitude,  its  elevations,  surround- 
ing currents,  and  the  directions  of  its  great  mountain  ranges, 
all  possible  varieties  of  climate,  and  as  here  man  is  found 
of  every  degree  of  civilization  and  savageness,  so  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  country  are  equally  varied  and  wonderful. 

The  word  "  productions  "  is  used  in  a  broad  sense,  mean- 
ing to  include  whatever  is  produced  by  the  different  leading 
occupations. 

[The  productions  should  be  mentioned,  as  far  as  possible,  in  some  order,  as 
according  to  value  or  locality.  These  productions  are  easily  learned  by  printing 
them  on  the  progressive  map  in  red  ink  (if  an  upper  class),  placing  the  names  in 
the  localities  where  they  are  most  abundant.  (See  p.  119.)  Such  maps  are  found  in 
Warren's,  Swinton's,  Harper's,  and  McNally's  geographies. 

Heath  &  Co.  of  Boston  publish  outline-maps  of  North  America,  United  States, 
and  sections  of  the  same,  which  save  much  time  and  trouble  in  preparing  progressive 
or  production  maps. 

Many  facts  are  here  given  which  would  only  be  read  or  given  orally  to  the  class. 
A  few  of  the  bright  minds  will  readily  remember  the  statements.  Do  not  require 
your  children  to  learn,  or  commit  to  memory,  all  herein  stated. j 

323 


324  METHODS  AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Productions  in  Greenland. 

The  people  are  able  in  the  southern  part  of  this  land  to 
raise,  during  the  very  short  summer,  a  little  corn,  potatoes, 
and  kitchen-sauce.  A  few  berries  also  grow.  Seal- furs, 
reindeer-skins,  and  whalebone  and  whale-products,  are  the 
principal  productions ;  also  cryolite,  used  in  making  por- 
celain. 

In  Iceland. 

Wool,  eider-down,  Iceland  moss,  oats,  garden-vegetables, 
and  fish. 

There  are  no  trees  of  any  size,  nor  any  reptiles,  found  at 
present  on  the  island. 

In  Canada,  or  British  America. 

Gold  is  found  along  the  banks  of  the  Frazer  River,  in 
Columbia. 

Lumber  abounds  in  the  great  forests  stretching  across  the 
country  on  both  sides  of  the  5oth  parallel. 

Cereals  grow  on  the  alluvial  valleys  by  the  Red  River  of 
the  North,  and  the  level  plains  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Soft  coal  comes  from  Nova  Scotia. 

The  fur- trade  gives  occupation  to  many  men  in  the  far 
North. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  productions  is  fish,  caught  near 
the  shores,  and  on  the  Grand  Banks.  Cod  ($4, 500,000 
worth  in  one  year),  herring  ($2,000,000  worth  yearly), 
lobster,  salmon,  mackerel,  trout,  in  order  of  value. 

In  the  United  States. 

In  this  country,  the  variety  of  climate,  the  richness  of  the 
soil,  and  the  energies  of  the  people,  all  combine  to  develop 
such  a  variety  of  productions,  it  is  well  to  speak  of  them 
under  different  headings,  according  to  value,  as,  — 


IN   THE   UNITED   STATES  325 

I.     Agricultural    Productions. 

Cotton.     Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana. 

Wheat.     California,  Minnesota,  Iowa. 

Corn  and  Oats.     Illinois. 

Hay  and  Potatoes.     New  York. 

Tobacco.     Kentucky,  Virginia. 

Sugar.     Louisiana. 

Rice.     South  Carolina. 

Wine.     California. 

Live  Stock.     Texas. 

Peaches.     New  Jersey. 

Oranges.     Florida. 

Peanuts.     Virginia,  Tennessee. 

Virginia  produces  1,250,000  bushels,  and  Tennessee 
600,000  bushels,  of  peanuts  in  a  year.  The  average  price 
is  one  dollar  per  bushel. 

The  United  States  raises  four-fifths  of  all  the  cotton  raised 
in  the  world.  She  raised,  in  1884,  1,500,000,000  bushels 
of  corn,  nearly  one-third  as  much  wheat,  and  more  than 
one-third  as  much  oats. 

If  a  freight- train  could  carry  100,000  bushels  at  one  time, 
'how  many  trains  would  it  take  to  move  all  this  grain? 

2.    Manufactured  Products. 

These  are  taken  from  the  last  census  report,  and  the  States 
are  arranged  according  to  the  value  of  the  products.  It 
will  be  readily  noticed  that  most  of  the  manufacturing  is 
carried  on  north  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers. 

[Require  the  pupils  to  learn  only  seven  or  eight  of  these,  taking  those  of  greatest 
importance  or  nearest  your  residence.] 

Boots  and  Shoes.     Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania. 
Clothing  (men's).     New  York,   Pennsylvania,  Ohio,:  Illinois,  Massa- 
chusetts. *  '    -  '  ' 


326  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Clothing  (women's).     New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts. 
Cotton    Goods.      Massachusetts,    Rhode    Island,    New    Hampshire, 

Connecticut,  Maine,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Georgia. 
Foundery  and   Machine-shop   Products.     New    York,    Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts,  Illinois,  Connecticut. 
Hardware.     Connecticut. 

Jewelry.     Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey. 
Leather.     Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Delaware. 
Linen.     New  York,  Maine,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois. 
Liquors  (distilled).     Illinois,  Kentucky,  Ohio. 

Liquors  (malt).     New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Massachusetts. 
Liquors  (vinous).     California,  Ohio. 
Lumber  (planed).     New  York,  Illinois,  Pennsylvania. 
Lumber  (sawed).     Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  New  York. 
Marble.     New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  Ohio. 
Mixed  Textiles.     Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Massachusetts. 
Printing  and   Publishing.     New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts, 

Illinois. 

Rubber  Goods.     Massachusetts. 
Salt.     Michigan,  New  York. 
Ship-building.     New  York,  Pennsylvania. 
Silk.     New  Jersey,  New  York,  Connecticut. 
Slaughtering.     New  York,  Illinois,  Massachusetts. 
Woollen  Goods.     Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,   Connecticut,  Rhode 

Island.  „ 

3.   Mining  Products. 

The  precious  metals  are  mined  in  the  Pacific  Highlands; 
iron  and  coal,  in  the  Atlantic  Highlands,  and  between  the 
two  highlands  mentioned,  especially  in  the  northern  half  of 
the  Central  Plain. 

For  methods  of  mining,  see  p.  307. 

[Teachers  can  easily  show  the  locality  to  the  eye,  by  writing  or  printing  these 
names  upon  the  outline-map.  Pupils  learn  the  same  by  printing  them.  ] 

Silver.     Colorado  ($16,000,000),  Nevada,  ($12,000,000),  Utah,  Arizona. 
Gold.     California  ($17,000,000),  Nevada  ($5,000,000),  Dakota,  Colo- 
rado, Montana. 


MEXICO  327 

Coal  (hard).     Pennsylvania. 

Coal  (soft).     Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Maryland. 

Iron.     Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Missouri. 

Copper.     Michigan,  Arizona,  Vermont,  North  Carolina,  Montana, 

Lead.     Missouri,  Virginia,  Kansas. 

Quicksilver.     California. 

Zinc.     New  Jersey,  Missouri,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia. 

Nickel.     Pennsylvania,  Michigan. 

In  Mexico 

the  people  live  at  all  elevations,  from  the  level  of  the  sea  to 
that  of  the  plains  of  Orizaba,  from  seven  thousand  to  eight 
thousand  feet.  This  fact,  and  the  latitude  of  the  country, 
give  it  a  great  variety  of  climate,  and  a  remarkable  range 
of  productions. 

In  a  trip  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  the 
traveller  would  begin  his  journey  in  the  hot  lands,  where 
grow  such  tropical  fruits  as  bananas,  oranges,  and  mangoes 
and  cocoa-palms  wave  their  long  leaves  in  the  wind. 

Rising  higher,  he  would  soon  enter  the  Temperate  Region, 
where,  at  the  height  of  three  or  four  thousand  feet,  sugar- 
cane, rice,  tobacco,  plaintain,  and  coffee  are  grown  with 
ease  and  abundance.  Corn,  apples,  and  peaches  abound  in 
this  belt. 

In  the  cold  country,  or  Plains  of  Mexico,  wheat,  barley, 
and  aloes  are  raised.  As  we  approach  the  capital  we  find 
the  cactus,  argave,  and  maguey,  from  which  pulque,  the 
famous  Mexican  drink,  is  obtained.  Cotton,  wheat,  and 
the  argave  grow  abundantly  about  the  capital.  Grains 
flourish  best  in  the  southern  and  eastern  part  of  the  state. 
Sugar  is  produced  principally  about  Vera  Cruz ;  various 
kinds  of  hemp,  in  Yucatan.  Spanish  pepper  is  largely 
raised  and  used. 


328  METHODS  AND   AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  noted  silver-mines  are  situated  in  the  central  part, 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred  miles  north  of  the  City  of  Mexico, 
and  in  Sonoro,  a  section  in  the  extreme  north-west. 

The  productions,  in  order  of  value,  are  as  follows :  corn, 
silver,1  wheat,  sugar,  frijoles  (beans),  gold,  cotton,  barley, 
pepper,  woods,  coffee,  rice,  hides,  vanilla,  tobacco,  rubber, 
orchil,  copper,  sulphur,  honey,  horsehair,  sarsaparilla. 

> 

In  the  West  Indies. 

The  climate  is  favorable  for  every  variety  of  tropical 
growth ;  the  soil  rich ;  and  man  alone  is  lazy,  and  inefficient, 
and  easily  satisfied.  Little  exertion  is  necessary  to  keep 
from  starving  to  death,  and  hence  little  enterprise  is  shown 
in  any  of  these  beautiful  islands. 

Few  minerals  are  found  :  and  the  productions  are  almost 
entirely  vegetable,  such  as  sugar,  molasses,  tobacco,  cigars, 
coffee  ;  tropical  fruits,  such  as  cocoanuts,  bananas,  pine- 
apples, oranges,  and  breadfruit;  mahogany  (Bahamas), 
indigo,  logwood  (Hayti)  ;  a  few  spices,  sponges,  honey. 

Sixteen  million  cigars  are  sometimes  made  in  Havana  in 
one  year.  Three  million  are  sent  to  United  States,  and  the 
same  number  to  England.  Two  million  go  to  Germany,  and 
half  as  many  to  France. 

The  tobacco  raised  in  a  single  year  is  valued  at  twenty 
million  dollars.  The  tobacco-plant  is  shaded  by  the  banana- 
plant,  and  the  coffee-tree  by  the  cocoa-palm. 

One-fifth  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  the  world  is  raised  in 
Cuba,  but  only  one-tenth  of  the  land  is  cultivated. 

[These  productions  can  be  dictated  to  the  class,  put  on 
the  board,  or,  better,  lists  made  by  the  pupils,  corrected 
in  the  classroom,  and  then  printed  on  the  progressive  map  as 

1  Hemf  should  come  next. 


COMMERCE  329 

given  in  the  Progressive  Map,  Fig.  1 7.  The  productions  have 
been  given  according  to  value,  but  it  is  important  that  a  few 
comparisons  be  made  to  impress  these  facts  upon  the  mem- 
ory of  the  children.  This'  can  be  easily  done  by  putting  on 
the  board  a  few  circles  divided  into  different  sized  sectors, 
such  as  follow.] 

XI.  COMMERCE 

The  great  commercial  grand  divisions  of  the  world  are 
Europe  and  North  America. 

If  the  important  countries  are  arranged  according  to  the 
amount  of  shipping,  both  sailing  and  steam,  the  countries 
appear  in  the  following  order  :  — 

Great  Britain. 

United  States. 
Norway. 

Germany. 

France. 

Italy. 

[The  subject  of  commerce  has  been  so  fully  illustrated,  and  so  much  space  already 
given  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  the  reader  is  referred  for  interesting  facts 
to  chaps,  xvi.  and  xvii.J 

Exports  of  North  America. 

The  exports  are  principally  from  agriculture.  We  export 
considerable  manufactured  goods,  but  we  import  still  more. 
Most  articles  imported  into  the  United  States  pay  high 
duties,  excepting  coffee,  tea,  fruit,  hides,  India-rubber,  rags, 
raw  silk,  and  raw  sugar. 

The  exports  and  imports  are  here  given,  in  order  of  their 
value,  according  to  the  latest  United-States  Government 
statistics.  This  order  will  vary  slightly  from  year  to  year, 
but  the  last  mentioned  will  never  become  the  first  mentioned 


33^  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

without  many  years  intervening.  Such  changes  have,  how- 
ever, taken  place  during  a  period  of  twenty-five  years  in 
India  and  Mexico. 

Canada  Exports 

From  Montreal,  to   England  and  United  States,  lumber,  grain,  and 

furs. 

From  Quebec,  to  England  and  United  States,  lumber. 
From  Halifax  and  St.  John's,  to  England  and  United  States,  fish* 
From  Halifax  and  British  Columbia,  to  United  States,  soft  coal. 

Canada  Imports 

From  England,  cotton  and  woollen  goods. 
From  the  United  States,  flour  and  coal. 

The  United  States  Exports 

Cotton  (raw)  to  England,  Germany,  France,  Russia,  and  Spain,  from 

New    Orleans,    New     York,    Savannah,    Charleston,    Norfolk, 

Baltimore,  and  Boston. 
Gold  and  silver  to  England,  Hong  Kong,  Italy,  Canada,  and  France, 

from  New  York  and  San  Francisco. 

(Two-thirds  of  this  is  carried  in  American  steamers,  and  the  rest  in 
foreign  steamers.) 
Breadstuff*   to    England,    France,    Belgium,   Canada,    Portugal,    and 

Cuba,   from    Chicago   via    New    York,   San    Francisco,   Boston, 

Philadelphia,   New  Orleans,  and  Baltimore. 
Petroleum  to  Germany,  England,  East  Indies,  Belgium,  Japan,  and 

Australia,  from  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Boston. 
Pork  to  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  Canada,  from  Chicago  and 

Cincinnati,  via  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia. 
Lard  to   England,   Germany,   France,   Cuba,  Belgium,  and  Canada, 

from  New  York  and  Boston. 
Animals  to  England  and  Mexico  from  New  York,   Boston,  Corpus 

Christi,  and  Saluria  (Tex.). 
Tobacco  to  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  England,  from   New  York, 

Baltimore,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  and  Galveston. 


UNITED-STATES   EXPORTS  33! 

Timber  to  England,  Canada,  Australia,  Cuba,  from  New  York,  Puget 

Sound,  Minnesota  (Minn.),  Pensacola  (Fla.),  and  Brunswick  (Ga.). 
Agricultural  Implements  to  Australia,  England,  Argentine  Republic, 

Canada,  and  France,  from  New  York  and  Boston. 
Cars  to  Mexico,  Canada,  and  United  States  of  Colombia,  from  New 

York. 
Manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  to  Mexico,  Australia,  Canada,  Cuba, 

England,   and    United    States   of    Colombia,   from    New   York, 

Philadelphia,  and  Boston. 

Leather  to  England  and  Germany,  from  New  York  and  Boston. 
Beef  to  England,  from  New  York  and  Boston. 

The  value  of  the  domestic  merchandise  exported  in  one  year, 
amounts  to  nearly  one  billion  dollars,  one-half  of  which  goes  to  Great 
Britain.  New-York  City  exports  more  than  one-half  of  this  amount. 

[The  teacher  should  not  expect  the  child  to  learn  all  the  following  statistics;  but 
rather  let  the  teacher  write  on  the  board  selections  therefrom,  omitting  some  facts, 
such  as  the  right  order  of  value,  the  locality,  etc  ,  and  allow  the  children  to  try  to  fill 
in  the  missing  fact,  restore  the  order,  etc.  The  teacher,  for  instance,  places  on  the  board 
the  facts  in  reference  to  the  United  States  importing  sugar,  and  asks  the  class  to  trace 
the  probable  route  by  which  the  cargoes  were  brought.  Or  the  teacher  asks,  "  By 
what  route  is  cotton  carried  from  the  United  States  to  England?  "  "  Under  what  flag 
would  agricultural  implements  be  exported  from  New  York  to  Australia?  "] 

The  United  States  Imports 

Sugar  from  Cuba,  other  parts  of  West  Indies,  Spanish  possessions, 
Guiana,  and  Brazil,  through  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Portland,  and  San  Francisco. 

Textiles  (cotton  and  woollen),  from  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
through  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia. 

Coffee  trom  Brazil,  Venezuela,  Central  America,  Java,  Hayti,  Colom- 
bia, Mexico,  and  West  Indies. 

Silk  (manufactured)  from  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Belgium,  through 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston. 

Silk  (raw)  from  Japan,  China,  and  France,  through  San  Francisco 
and  New  York. 

Hides  from  England,  Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay,  East  Indies, 
Mexico,  Colombia,  Brazil,  and  France,  through  New  York,  Bos- 
ton, and  San  Francisco. 


33 2  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Tea  from  China,  Japan,  through  New  York,  San  Francisco. 

India  Rubber  from  Brazil,  England,  Central  America,  Colombia,  and 

Southern  Africa,  through  New  York  and  Boston. 
Linen  (manufactured)  from  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  through  New 

York  and  Boston. 
Tobacco  from  Cuba  and  Netherlands,  through  New  York  and   Key 

West. 
Tin  from  England,  through  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and 

San  Francisco. 
Spices  from  East  Indies,  England,  and  Africa,  through  New  York, 

Boston,  and  San  Francisco. 
Wine  from  France,  England,  and  Netherlands,  through  New  York 

and  Boston. 
Rice  from  England,  China,  and  East  Indies,  through  San  Francisco 

and  New  York. 
Salt  from  England,  West  Indies,  and  Canada,  through  New  York  and 

Boston. 

Mexico  Exports 

From  Vera  Cruz  and  other  seaports,  to  England,  silver  >  mahogany. 
From  Vera  Cruz,  to  United  States,  coffee,  goat-skins,  dry  hides,  India 

rubber,  and  vanilla-beans, 

From  Paso  del  Norte,  to  United  States,  silver,  goat-skins,  and  animals. 
From  Merida,  Yucatan,  to  United  States,  hennequen  Jibre. 

Other  exports  to  United  S.tates  are  vanilla,  tobacco,  sugar,  honey, 
beans,  orchil,  copper,  horsehair,  sarsaparilla. 

Mexico  Imports 

From   the   United  States  and  England,  textiles,  liquors,  machinery, 
glass,  and  iron  wares. 

The  West  Indies  Export 

From  Havana,  to  United  States  and  England,  sugar,  cigars,  molasses, 

cocoa,  logwood,  fruit,  sponges. 
From  Matanzas,  Cardenas,  and  Cienfugos,  Cuba,  to  United  States, 

sugar,  molasses,  and  honey. 
From  Kingston  (Jamaica)  and  Cape  Haytien  (Hayti),  to  United  States, 

coffee  and  logwood. 


CITIES  IN  NORTH  AMERICA  333 

XII.  A  FEW  REPRESENTATIVE   CITIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

[Let  the  children  prepare,  in  upper  class,  a  little  description  of  the  characteristic 
places  in  the  country,  which  description  may  be  considered  as  a  composition.  Below 
we  give  a  few  illustrative  accounts,  to  show  our  meaning.  Facts  briefly  stated  should 
here  be  required,  rather  than  fine  writing.] 

Upernavik,  Grsenland.  —  Latitude,  72°  N.  Population,  in  1870, 
was  88. 

Name  means  "  Place  of  Spring." 

Most  northern  place  in  North  America. 

Situated  on  an  island,  facing  the  sea ;  exposed  to  icy  winds  and 
fogs. 

It  has  a  very  desolate  and  dreary  appearance.  Large  heaps  of 
snow  near  by,  even  in  July. 

A  little  vegetation  grows  in  the  gardens  near  the  houses.  There 
is  a  small  church,  twenty-five  feet  by  sixteen  feet,  also  a  comfortable 
house  for  the  missionary.  In  winter  the  sun  for  seventy-nine  days  is 
below  the  horizon.  For  thirty-nine  days  it  is  very  dark. 

Sitka,  Alaska.  —  Latitude,  57°  N.     Population,  1,000. 

Situated  on  Baranoff  Islands.  It  has  a  small  harbor.  Mountains 
rise  near  by. 

The  place  has  a  custom-house,  a  hospital,  saw-mills,  also  a  Greco- 
Russian  church. 

A  steamboat  plies  every  two  weeks  between  this  place  and 
Portland,  Ore. 

The  business  is  the  catchfng  and  curing  of  salmon. 

It  is  garrisoned  by  a  hundred  and  eighty  United-States  troops. 
More  rain  falls  here  than  in  any  other  place  outside  of  the  tropics. 

Warmer  than  Boston  on  account  of  the  Japan  Current. 

Chicago.  —  Population  in  1888,  750,000.  Almost  as  large  as 
Philadelphia,  twice  as  large  as  St.  Louis.  Twice  the  population  of 
Boston. 

Situated  on  the  Great  Lakes,  thus  connecting  with  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  Erie  Canal,  and  near  the  Mississippi  River.  Largest  com- 
mercial city,  for  these  reasons,  in  the  interior.  Greatest  railroad 
centre  in  this  country,  if  not  in  the  world.  Twenty-two  railroads 
enter  the  city. 


334  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Greatest  grain  and  lumber  market.  Immense  "  cattle-yards," 
where  beeves,  hogs,  and  lambs  are  slaughtered  in  the  most  scientific 
manner.  Much  of  this  meat  is  sent  in  refrigerator-cars  to  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  other  places. 

Excellent  water-supply  brought  by  a  tunnel  several  miles  long,  from 
the  bottom  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Chicago  is  a  commercial  emporium  with  the  North- West. 

It  has  wide  and  straight  streets,  miles  and  miles  of  business  blocks ; 
many  buildings  from  eleven  to  fourteen  stories  high.  A  large  number 
of  elevators  are  seen  in  the  city.  There  are  several  large  depots,  a 
fine  post-office  and  custom-house,  court-house,  board  of  trade,  im- 
mense hotels,  many  churches,  schools,  etc. 

There  is  a  system  of  public  parks  connected,  with  boulevards,  which 
will  be  magnificent  when  completed.  Lincoln  Park  already  shows 
some  fine  efforts  in  English  landscape-gardening. 

Chicago  has  had  an  unparalleled  growth.  In  1837  it  contained 
four  thousand  people;  in  1850,  thirty  thousand;  in  1860,  a  hundred 
and  twelve  thousand;  1870,  three  hundred  thousand. 

The  next  year  (1871)  it  had  a  fire,  which  proved  to  be  the  greatest 
in  modern  times.  Two  thousand  acres  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
along  the  lake,  were  burned  over,  destroying  over  seventeen  thousand 
buildings,  rendering  homeless  a  hundred  thousand  people.  In  three 
years  this  was  all  rebuilt. 

Chicago  has  now  the  largest  rolling-mill  in  the  world,  the  largest 
steel-mill,  and  makes  nearly  all  of  its  own  boots  and  shoes. 

Comparisons. 

BOSTON.  CHICAGO. 


Two  hundred  and  fifty  years  old. 
360,000. 
Twice  as  slow. 
Situated  on  salt  water. 
Seaport. 

Narrow  but  clean  streets. 
Crooked  streets. 
Not  level. 

Culture  and  business. 
Charitable. 

Boasts  of  its  ancestors  and  learn- 
ing. 


Fifty  years  old. 
700,000. 
Twice  as  large. 
On  fresh  water. 
Inland  port. 
Wide  but  dirty  streets. 
Straight  streets. 
Perfectly  level. 
Business,  business. 
Generous. 

Boasts  of  its   growth   and   enter- 
prise. 


WASHINGTON  AND  NEW  ORLEANS  335 

Washington,  D.C.  —  Population  (1880),  150,000.  Half  as  large  as 
Baltimore  ;  about  the  size  of  Buffalo. 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  Potomac,  one  hundred  miles  from  its 
mouth. 

The  "  City  of  Magnificent  Distances."  Finest  and  healthiest  of 
American  cities ;  resembles  Paris ;  streets  very  wide ;  many  parks 
and  open  squares.  Washington  is  the  capital  of  the  United  States, 
and  contains  the  Capitol,  standing  on  grounds  containing  fifty-two 
acres.  The  Capitol  is  built  of  white  marble  and  freestone :  it  consists 
of  a  central  building  surmounted  by  a  dome  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  feet  high,  and  two  wings.  The  north  wing  is  for  the  Senate,  and 
the  south  wing  for  the  House  of  Representatives,  —  the  largest  legis- 
lative room  in  the  world,  seating  eight  hundred  members:  the  gal- 
leries will  seat  fifteen  hundred  spectators.  The  Supreme  Court  has 
rooms  in  the  central  building. 

The  Treasury  building  contains  a  hundred  and  ninety-five  rooms, 
the  marble  room  being  the  finest.  This  building  cost  the  Government 
six  million  dollars. 

Other  large  and  costly  buildings  are  the  State,  Navy,  and  War 
Departments,  the  Interior  Department,  Post-Office  Department, 
Smithsonian  Institute,  Naval  Observatory,  Soldiers'  Home,  etc. 

The  President's  residence  is  called  the  White  House,  and  is 
surrounded  by  grounds  containing  twenty  acres. 

The  Washington  Monument  is  an  obelisk  of  marble  five  hundred 
and  fifty-five  feet  high,  and  fifty-five  feet  square  at  the  base. 

Washington  society  is  cosmopolitan. 

Congress  meets  the  first  Monday  in  December. 

There  is  no  commerce,  and  little  business  except  making  laws,  in 
this  city. 

New  Orleans.  —  Population,  216,000.  Twice  as  large  as  Provi- 
dence ;  two-thirds  as  large  as  St.  Louis  or  Boston ;  about  the  size  of 
San  Francisco. 

Situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  seven  hundred 
miles  south  of  St.  Louis,  one  hundred  miles  above  delta  of  river. 

Called  "  Crescent  City  "  because  of  the  shape  in  the  bend  of  the 
river.  It  has  grown  so  lately,  the  city  is  now  in  the  form  of  the 
letter  S. 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  city  is  several  feet  below  the  river.  The  levee  to  protect  the 
city  from  the  river  extends  two  hundred  miles  above  the  city,  and 
fifty  miles  below  the  city.  It  is  fifteen  feet  wide  on  top,  and  it  makes 
a  good  promenade. 

There  are  several  fine  buildings,  such  as  the  Custom  House,  built 
of  Quincy  granite,  —  the  largest  edifice  in  the  country,  except  the 
Capitol  at  Washington ;  also  City  Hall,  Branch  Mint,  State  House 
(once  the  famous  St.  Louis  Hotel),  St.  Patrick's  Hall,  St.  Charles 
Hotel,  etc. 

Canal  is  the  main  business-street.  There  is  some  difficulty  in 
draining  the  city. 

In  summer  afflicted  with  yellow-fever.  Twenty-eight  epidemics 
from  1797  to  1889;  three  epidemics  from  1858  to  1879. 

Commerce  greatly  increased  since  the  jetties,  have  been  finished 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Exports  cotton  and  sugar.  One-third  of  all  the  cotton  exported 
from  United  States.  Sugar  is  here  piled  up  in  sheds  like  coal. 

Between  Christmas  and  Lent  the  greatest  carnival  in  the  United 
States  is  held.  This  takes  place  every  year  on  Mardi  Gras,  or  Shrove 
Tuesday.  Then  the  people  dress  to  resemble  animals,  goblins,  and 
such  creatures,  and  march  through  the  streets  with  music  and  torches, 
setting  off  fire-works  as  they  proceed. 

Mexico —  Population  (1878),  250,000.     Larger  than  New  Orleans. 

Finest  and  most  brilliant  city  in  Spanish  America.  The  observer 
is  far  more  impressed  by  the  natural  scenery  surrounding  the  city, 
than  by  its  buildings  and  monuments 

Lies  in  the  centre  of  the  Anahuac  tableland,  midway  between  two 
oceans,  in  a  zone  of  perennial  spring ;  7,465  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

It  is  a  handsome  city,  tolerably  clean ;  forms  a  perfect  square ; 
streets  spacious,  perfectly  straight,  and  level ;  finest  open  place  -in 
America. 

A  splendid  sight  presented  by  the  Plaza,  one  thousand  feet  square. 
Wonderful  cathedral,  overlaid  with  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones. 
Arcades  where  all  kinds  ot  business  are  carried  on. 

Five  miles  to  the  south-west  is  situated  the  castle  of  Chapultepec, 
standing  on  a  hill  over  two  hundred  feet  high.  Maximilian  made  it 
his  home. 


CITIES   AND  JOURNEYS  337 

Alameda  is  a  public  park  containing  forty  acres. 

The  Tivoli  Gardens  are  very  beautiful ;  the  tables  for  eating  are 
arranged  in  the  trees,  in  boxes,  etc.  The  gentry  breakfast  about 
12  M.  in  this  garden.  The  floating  gardens  are  not  common  now. 

Principal  Cities  of  the  United  States. 

The  important  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  also  of 
North  America,  are  nearly  all  commercial  cities  situated  on 
the  water.  In  the  frontispiece  the  water-situation  of  many 
of  these  cities  is  shown,  and  one  city  contrasted  with  another. 
A  city  situated  on  an  island  like  New  York,  or  on  a  peninsula 
like  Boston,  well  surrounded  with  water,  having  plenty  of 
wharves,  has  a  great  advantage  over  Chicago  and  Philadel- 
phia, which  possess  much  less  water-communication.  [Are 
most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  country  on  the  north  or  the 
south,  the  west  or  the  east,  of  the  rivers  and  bodies  of  water 
nearest  them  ?] 

XIII.  JOURNEYS 

[Assign  as  a  home  lesson  proposed  journeys  across  the  country  from  different 
points,  such  as  are  suggested  below.] 

1.  Down   the    Mississippi.      (Consult   Four  Months   in    a 

Sneak- Box,  by  Bishop.) 

2.  From  Boston  to  Chicago,  via  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg. 

3.  From    Chicago    to   San    Francisco,    via   Union    Pacific. 

(Consult  Fifth  Avenue  to  Alaska,  by  Pierrepoint.) 

4.  From  St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco,  via  Southern  Pacific. 

(Consult  Codman's  Round  Trip.) 

5.  From   New  York   to  Mexico   in   eight  days.      (Consult 

Ober's  Mexico.) 

6.  From  Boston  to  Smith  Sound.     (Consult  Hayes's  Open 

Polar  Sea.) 

7.  From  east   to  west   on   the  fortieth    parallel.      (Consult 

the  imagination  and  memory.) 

8.  From  north  to  south  on  the  ninety-seventh  meridian. 


338  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

From  the  Dearborn  School,  Boston,  to  Chicago. 

A  happy  party  of  boys  a«d  girls  from  the  graduating  class,  and 
their  two  teachers,  boarded  the  Western  Express  in  the  Boston 
and  Albany  Depot,  June  3,  for  a  trip  to  Chicago. 

I  was  selected  secretary  of  this  travelling  club  of  ramblers,  and 
now  present  my  official  report  of  our  proceedings.  We  had,  of 
course,  two  special  Pullman  drawing-room  cars  provided  for  our 
accommodation.  Leaving  Boston  at  8.30,  we  were,  in  about  six 
hours,  crossing  the  Hudson  and  rolling  into  Albany,  the  capital  of 
New  York.  There  was  no  time  to  stop  and  examine  the  costly  State 
House,  decorated  by  our  neighbor,  the  great  painter  and  artist ;  for 
the  train  in  a  few  minutes  left  for  the  West,  over  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad. 

We  passed  too  rapidly  for  careful  description,  through  the  charm- 
ing Mohawk  Valley,  in  sight  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  along  this  rich 
agricultural  portion  of  the  Empire  State.  Niagara  Falls  was 
reached  about  12  P.M.,  and  we  retired  at  the  Cataract  House  before 
seeing,  but  not  before  hearing,  the  great  cascade.  In  the  morning  we 
caught,  from  the  piazza  of  this  hotel,  our  first  glimpse  of  the  moving 
water.  What  exclamations  of  wonder  escaped  from  the  lips  of  the 
sightseers ! 

Most  of  this  day  was  spent  in  viewing  the  falls  from  different 
points.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  what  a  mass  of  water  is  constantly 
descending  the  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  of  the  fall,  till  the  observer 
stands  at  the  foot  of  the  moving  avalanche  and  looks  upward.  Our 
party  were  especially  delighted  with  the  views  from  Goat  Island.  I 
noticed  that  the  rumble  of  the  falls  is  not  a  harsh,  unpleasant  sound, 
but  rather  sweet  and  musical,  although  loud  enough  to  be  heard 
thirty  miles  away. 

As  the  ride  onward  to  Chicago  was  passed  by  us  in  a  state  of 
unconsciousness  in  a  sleeper,  I  refrain  from  comment. 

The  great  business-life  of  Chicago  is  easily  seen  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Palmer  House  where  we  stopped,  in  such  streets  as  Clark,  Dear- 
born, State,  and  Monroe.  Boston  knows  little  of  such  rush  and  push. 

In  our  rambles  about  the  city,  several  of  us  visited  the  stockyards, 
which  are  covered  with  sheds  and  pens,  capable  of  keeping  two 


JOURNEY  TO  CHICAGO  339 

hundred  and  forty  thousand  head  of  cattle  at  once.  Near  by  are  many 
slaughtering  and  packing  establishments,  and  a  hundred  miles  of 
railroad- tracks.  On  many  of  the  streets  cable-cars  are  used,  run  in 
trains  of  three  cars.  This  system  secures  greater  speed,  and  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  such  straight  and  long  streets.  One  morning  the 
party  rode  in  barouches  through  Michigan  Avenue,  one  of  the  most 
complete  boulezards  connecting  the  different  parks.  This  grand 
avenue  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide,  and  lined  on  each  side 
with  beautifully  arranged  plots  of  flowers,  graceful  elms,  and  superb 
residences,  owned  and  occupied  by  the  city  princes  of  wealth. 

We  then  inspected  several  new  buildings,  such  as  the  Board  of 
Trade,  where  the  grain-speculators  are  said  to  meet  and  "gamble;" 
the  County  Court  House  and  City  Hall,  towering  in  majestic  propor- 
tions, and  reminding  one  of  the  photographs  of  buildings  in  Paris. 
We  also  rode  by  the  Post-Office  and  Custom  House,  and  the  Pullman 
Building,  the  last  noted  for  being  only  fourteen  stories  high.  The 
upper  story  is  a  kitchen  ;  the  thirteenth  story,  a  restaurant. 

In  the  afternoon  we  rode  out  to  Lincoln  Park,  on  the  north  side,  — 
the  oldest,  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful,  park  in  the  city.  It  covers 
two  hundred  and  fifty  acres,  has  an  infinite  variety  of  drives  and 
elevations,  from  which  grand  views  of  the  lake  are  obtained,  in  some 
respects  reminding  the  writer  of  Franklin  Park  at  home;  and  yet 
a  few  years  ago  this  spot  was  a  flat,  unattractive  prairie.  In  the 
zoological  garden  were  to  be  seen  some  unusually  fine  specimens  of 
the  grizzly  bear,  buffaloes,  prairie-wolf,  and  California  seal.  In  the 
centre  of  the  park  two  or  three  acres  are  laid  out  in  an  immense 
flower-garden,  such  as  to  make  our  boasted  efforts  in  that  line  sink 
into  insignificance. 

XIV.  COMPARISONS 

[Write  on  the  board,  for  comparison  by  the  class  for  review,  such  topics  as  the 
following.] 

Compare  the  Yosemite  Valley  with  the  Wisconsin  Dalles. 
The  Colorado  Canon  and  the  Connecticut  Valley. 
Mount  St.  Elias  and  Mount  Washington. 
The  Merrimac  River  and  the  Potomac. 


340 


METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


The  fiftieth  parallel  and  the  thirty-fifth  parallel. 

The  climate  of  New  York  and  Southern  California. 

Compare  Georgia  and  Nevada. 

The  cultivation  of  rice  and  maize. 

Newfoundland  and  Cuba. 

The  fruits  of  Massachusetts  and  those  of  Florida. 

The  Indian  and  the  Negro. 

[Each  pupil  at  the  board,  or  on  paper,  is  directed  by  the  teacher  to] 

Contrast  the 
NEW  WORLD  WITH  THE  OLD  WORLD. 


Two  grand  divisions. 

One-half  as  large. 

Long  and  narrow. 

Mountains   extending    north    and 

south. 
Plains  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the 

surface. 
Plateaus   cover    one-third   of    the 

surface. 

Greater  amount  of  moisture. 
Vegetable  life  abundant. 
100,000,000  inhabitants. 
Republics. 
Growing  and  improving. 


Four  grand  divisions. 

Twice  as  large. 

Length  and  breadth  nearly  equal. 

Mountains  extending  east  and 
west. 

Plains  equal  one-third  of  the  sur- 
face. 

Plateaus  cover  two-thirds  of  the 
surface. 

Less  amount  of  moisture. 

Animal  life  abundant. 

1,300,000,000  inhabitants. 

Monarchies. 

Standing  still. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


ONE    country    exchanges   its    surplus   produce    for    the    surplus 
produce,  respectively,  of  other  countries. —  Yeats. 


BOOKS   FOR   CONSULTATION 


AMERICAN  ALMANAC  (annual,  March). 
BEVAN'S  SHIP-BUILDING  AND  RAILWAYS. 
BARKER'S  TRADE  AND  FINANCE  (annual). 
COMMERCIAL  RELATIONS  1884-85,  parts  i  and  2. 
GREAT  INDUSTRIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
ROMAN'S  CYCLOPAEDIA  OF  COMMERCE. 
KALE'S  CONDITION  OF  NATIONS. 
MALEAUX-  WONDERLAND  OF  WORK. 
MARTIN'S  STATESMAN'S  YEAR-BOOK. 
McCuLLocH's  DICTIONARY  OF  COMMERCE. 
MULHALL'S  DICTIONARY  OF  STATISTICS. 
RESOURCES  OF  MODERN  COUNTRIES. 
SCRIBNER'S  MAGAZINE  for  1888. 
SPON'S  ENCYCLOPAEDIA  OF  MANUFACTURING. 
STATISTICS  OF  COMMERCE,  1880. 
YEATS'S  COMMERCE,  RECENT  AND  EXISTING,  18 
YEATS'S  GROWTH  OF  COMMERCE,  1888. 
YEATS'S  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  COMMERCE,  1888. 
WEBSTER'S  TRADE  OF  THE  WORLD. 

342 


CHAPTER  XVI 
COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

HISTORY  AND  GROWTH  OF  COMMERCE — KINDS  OF  COMMERCE  — IMPORTANT  COM- 
MERCIAL COUNTRIES — HOW  CARRIED  ON — NOTED  TRADE  ROUTES  — GREAT 
RAILROAD  ROUTES  — TRUNK  LINES— COSTLY  BRIDGES  —  BOSTON  TO  MEXICO  — 
IMPORTANT  WATER  ROUTES  —  ARTIFICIAL  WATER  ROUTES  —  TELEGRAPH  AND 
TELEPHONE  — COMMERCIAL  CENTRES  —  "  THK  THREES  OF  COMMERCE  "  — COM- 
MERCIAL TRIP  ROUND  THE  WORLD 

IN  the  Saxon  age,  neither  commerce  nor  productive  indus- 
try existed.  Each  family  was  self-contained,  like  a  savage 
Indian.  There  was  then  no  division  of  labor,  no  interchange 
of  movable  property  in  the  modern  sense,  no  communication 
worthy  of  the  name. 

Commerce  was  once  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
but  even  then  it  was  active ;  and  Venice  grew  rich  in  its 
service,  till  Vasco  de  Gama  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  turned  the  trade  to  England. 

The  discovery  of  America  opened  new  possibilities  for 
commercial  activity,  but  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine 
created  new  developments  in  both  manufacturing  and  com- 
merce. Commerce  then  becomes  indirectly  a  mighty  agent 
of  production,  since  it  stimulates  the  industry  of  every 
country.  Commerce,  on  the  other  hand,  grows  with  the 
growth  of  productive  industry. 

"  Every  new  raw  material  brought  within  the  range  of  manufac- 
ture, every  increase  in  the  yield  of  the  soil  from  improved  husbandry, 
every  appliance  to  make  labor-saving  machinery  more  effective,  every 

343 


344  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

new  process  of  service  to  lessen  the  cost  of  production,  every  wise 
legislative  act  that  clears  the  path  of  labor  and  interchange,  every 
geographical  discovery  and  settlement,  every  new  market  in  distant 
ports,  and  every  advance  of  the  laborer  in  the  exercise  of  the  indus- 
trial virtues,  swells,  by  so  much,  the  dimensions  of  the  national 
commerce." 

The  interchange  of  the  products  of  one  country  with 
another,  has  had  great  influence  on  the  human  race.  The 
potato  was  carried  to  Europe  ;  maize,  to  Asia. 

The  search  for  gold,  ivory,  and  diamonds,  has  opened 
up  new  parts  of  the  world,  and  secured  their  early  settle- 
ment. The  search  for  platina  disclosed  the  most  guarded 
recesses  of  the  Cordilleras  and  the  Ural  Mountains.  The 
need  of  copper  led  to  our  acquaintance  with  the  Great  Lakes. 
The  demand  for  whale-oil  and  rich  furs  has  opened  to  all 
people  the  indispensable  riches  of  the  polar  world. 

The  remarkable  growth  of  commerce  and  wealth  during 
the  last  fifty  years  is  vividly  shown  by  such  a  table  as  the 
following,  taken  from  English  Parliamentary  Reports  :  — • 

Per- capita  Consumption   of  Different   Articles   imported    largely   by    the 

People  of  Great  Britain. 

ARTICLES.  1840.  1886. 

Bacon  and  hams    .        .                 .        .        .  Ibs.  o.oi  11.95 

Butter "  1.05  7.17 

Cheese .        .  "  0.92  5.14 

Currants  and  Raisins 1.45  4*°2 

Rice "  0.90  10.75 

Wheat  and  wheat  flour          ....  "4247  185.76 

Sugar  (raw) "  15.20  47.21 

Sugar  (refined)    , "  none  18.75 

Tea        . "  1.22  4.87 

Eggs       ........  no.  363  28.12 

Tobacco Ibs.  0.86  1.42 

Coffee "  1.08  0.86 


COMMERCIAL  COUNTRIES  345 

A  full  year's  supply  of  meat  and  bread  for  an  adult  person 
in  the  United  States  can  now  be  transported  from  the  places 
where  most  abundant,  a  thousand  miles,  to  where  most 
needed,  for  the  cost  of  a  mechanic's  single  day's  wages. 

Commerce  is  the  exchange  of  productions,  on  a  large 
scale,  between  different  places.  It  is  readily  divided  into 
two  kinds ;  viz.,  Domestic  and  Foreign. 

The  principal  articles  exchanged  are  grouped  under  the 
following  three  heads  :  i.  Food ;  2.  Clothing ;  3.  Metals.  Or,  by 
another  grouping  :  1.  Raw  Material ;  2.  Manufactured  Goods. 

COMMERCIAL  COUNTRIES  AND  CENTRES 

Commerce  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  contour  of  the 
country.  A  grand  division  with  many  projections  and 
indentations,  like  Europe,  is  likely  to  have  good  harbors ; 
and  it  is  easy  for  ships  to  go  from  one  point  to  another,  as 
many  of  the  water-routes  are  within  sight  of  land.  South 
America  and  Africa  are  illustrations  of  the  opposite  con- 
dition, and  their  history  has  little  to  do  with  commerce. 
The  three  navigable  rivers  in  South  America  make  up  for 
the  lack  of  projections. 

The  great  commercial  countries  to-day  are,  according  to 
value,  Great  Britain,  United  States,  France,  Germany, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Russia,  Austria. 

The  commerce  of  the  British  Empire,  including  India, 
Canada,  and  Australia,  is  greater  than  the  united  trade  of 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  The  commerce 
of  England  to-day  is  about  nine  times  as  great  as  it  was  in 
1800.  The  commerce  of  France  in  the  same  time  has 
increased  still  more  rapidly.  Great  Britain  has  the  most 
trade  with  India,  of  all  her  possessions  ;  next  comes  Australia, 


346  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

and  then  Canada.  The  United  States  imports  only  about 
half  as  much  from  Great  Britain  now  as  in  1870,  but  she 
exports  to  Great  Britain  nearly  twice  as  much  now  as  in 
1870. 

The  noted  commmercial  centres  of  the  world  are,  for 
» 

General  Commerce. 

Liverpool  and  London In  England. 

New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  .         .     '    .  United  States. 

Hamburg  and  Bremen          .         .         .         .  Germany. 

Antwerp Belgium. 

Marseilles  and  Havre France. 

Alexandria Africa. 

Calcutta Asia. 

Melbourne Australia. 

Rio  Janeiro South  America. 

Liverpool  and  London  are  at  the  end  of  two  great 
commercial  water-routes.  [Ask  the  children  to  mention 
the  cities  at  the  other  end.  Boston  and  New  York  are  at 
the  end  of  a  great  commercial  land-route.  What  city  is 
at  the  other  end?] 

"  England  is  anchored  in  the  side  of  Europe,  and  right  in  the  heart 
of  the  modern  world.  It  has  the  best  commercial  position  on  the 
whole  planet. 

"  Every  natural  deficiency  is  compensated  by  wonderful  energy. 
The  country,  though  foggy  and  rainy,  has  furnished  the  world  with 
astronomical  observations.  Its  short  rivers  do  not  afford  water- 
power,  but  the  land  shakes  under  the  thunder  of  the  mills.  With  no 
gold  mines,  there  is  more  gold  in  England  than  in  all  other  countries. 
Too  far  north  for  the  vine,  the  wines  of  all  countries  are  in  its  docks. 
'No  fruit  ripens  in  England  but  a  baked  apple,'  says  a  French 
critic,  but  oranges  and  pine-apples  are  cheaper  there  than  in  the 
Mediterranean." — Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 


ENGLAND'S  COMMERCE  347 

"  A  power,"  says  Webster,  "  that  has  clotted  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe  with  her  possessions  and  military  posts,  whose  nlorning 
drum-beat,  following  the  sun,  and  keeping  company  with  the  hours, 
circles  the  earth  daily  with  one  continuous  and  unbroken  strain  of  the 
martial  airs  of  England." 

"  Between  two  seas,  France  has  the  next  best  position  for  com- 
merce. Humboldt  pronounced  its  climate  the  finest  in  the  world. 
But  its  rare  resources  are  in  the  character  of  its  people.  The  French 
seldom  emigrate.  They  have  peculiar  skill  in  providing  for  luxury 
abroad,  and  in  practising  economy  at  home.  The  rich  of  every  land 
are  buyers  of  their  high-priced  products.  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  alone  pay  yearly  to  France  $400,000,000,  mostly  for 
luxuries  of  food  and  dress." 

England  has  over  twenty-two  thousand  merchant  vessels, 
manned  by  over  two  hundred  thousand  seamen.  Her 
commerce  is  protected  by  the  largest  navy  in  the  world. 
She  has  established  fortified  naval  depots  for  coal  and 
provisions  along  all  the  great  routes  of  commerce.  For 
example,  in  the  Mediterranean  are  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and 
Cyprus ;  on  the  South-African  route,  St.  Helena,  Cape 
Town,  and  Mauritius ;  on  the  East-India  route,  Aden, 
Bombay,  Calcutta,  Singapore,  and  Hong  Kong ;  Melbourne, 
etc.,  in  Australia ;  Jamaica  and  Balize  in  the  West  Indies ; 
Halifax  and  Quebec  in  Canada.  The  sun  never  sets  on  her 


The  United  States,  in  contrast,  has,  at  present,  very  few 
vessels  engaged  in  foreign  commerce.  [WHY?] 

The  United  States  produces  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  cot- 
ton crop  of  the  world.  More  is  produced  now  in  the  South 
by  free  labor,  than  was  formerly  done  under  slave  labor. 
India  cannot  compete  with  the  United  States  in  raising 
cotton. 


348  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

India  now  raises  more  tea  than  Japan.  It  all  goes  to 
England.  China  raises  three-fourths  of  all  the  tea.  The 
United  States  imports  its  tea  from  Shanghai,  Amoy,  and 
Chefoo,  Kanagowa  and  Hiogo ;  its  fire-crackers  from  Can- 
ton ;  its  rattans  from  Singapore  and  Batavia ;  its  bananas  l 
from  Kingston  and  Truxillo ;  its  cocoanuts  from  Trinidad 
and  Porto  Rico ;  its  raisins  from  Malaga,  Barcelona,  and 
Denia. 

HOW  CARRIED  ON 

Commerce  is  carried  on  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
ON  LAND 

(In  Savage  and  Semi-civilized  Countries.) 

1.  By  porters,  as  the  negro  carriers  in  Africa. 

2.  By  dogs,  as  the  dog- trains  in  Greenland  and  Siberia. 

3.  By  llamas,  as  in  the  Andes  of  South  America. 

4.  By  camels  (caravans),  as  across  the  deserts  of  Africa 
and  Asia. 

5.  By  horses  (sleighing  on  snow  or  ice),  as  in  Russia. 

(In  Civilized  Countries.) 

6.  By  railroads. 

ON    WATER 

1.  By  boats  on  canals. 

2.  By  sailing-ships. 

3.  By  steamers. 

Steamers  are  now  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  sailing- 
vessels. 

1  An  average  bunch  of  bananas  in  Kingston,  Jamaica,  is  worth  forty  cents;  the 
same  in  Boston  is  worth  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents. 


GREAT  TRADE  ROUTES  349 

NOTED  TRADE  ROUTES1 

OVERLAND 
Through  Siberia. 

From    Pekin   to   Kiachta,    Irkutsk,   Tomsk,    Nijni-Novgorod,   to 
Moscow. 

Across  Sahara. 

1.  From  Morocco  and  Fez  to  Timbuctoo. 

2.  From  Tunis  to  Sackatoo. 

3.  From  Tripoli  to  Mourzouk  and  Kouka. 

4.  From  the  lower  cataract  of  the  Nile  to  Central  Africa. 

GREAT  RAILROAD  ROUTES 

EUROPE 

1.  Liverpool  to  London. 

2.  Glasgow  to  London. 

3.  Edinburgh  to  London. 

4.  London  to  Dover. 

5.  London  to  New  Haven. 

6.  Lisbon  to  Reggio,  via  Madrid  and  Marseilles. 

7.  Brest  to  Otranto,  via  Paris  and  Turin. 

8.  Brest  to  Bucharest,  via  Paris  and  Vienna. 

9.  Brest  to  Berlin,  Moscow,  and  to  Orenburg,  Ural    River,  three 
thousand'two  hundred  and  sixty-six  miles.     Before  many  years  this 
road  will  be  completed  to  China. 

10.  Cadiz  to  St.  Petersburg,  three  thousand  miles. 

These  lines  are  crossed  by  six  north  to  south  lines. 

AFRICA 
Alexandria  to  Cairo  and  Suez. 

ASIA 

Bombay  to  Madras. 

Bombay  to  Calcutta. 

1  In  all  cases  the  route  is  to  be  traced  on  the  maps:  afterwards  \t  should  be  drawn 
on  the  large  blackboard  outline  map  by  the  pupils. 


35°  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

NORTH    AMERICA 

The  grand  trunk  lines  in  this  country  run  mostly  from  the 
east  to  the  west,  passing  through  the  valleys  and  passes  of 
the  intersecting  mountains. 

[Why  do  they  run  in  this  direction?] 

British  America. 

CANADIAN  PACIFIC.  —  From  Quebec,  via  Montreal,  the  St.  Law- 
rence  Valley,  north  of  Lake  Superior,  Winnipeg,  the  valleys  of  the 
Saskatchewan  and  Eraser  rivers,  over  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to 
Victoria. 

In  the  United  States.1 

Eastern  Half. 

The  most  important  routes  between  the  Atlantic  coast 
and  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  the  following  :  — 

1.  The  Grand  Trunk  Line,  from  Portland,  Me.,  through  the  White 
Mountains  to  Montreal,  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley,  Canada,  north  of 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  to  Chicago. 

2.  The  Boston  and  Albany,  and  the  Hoosac  Tunnel  routes,  across 
Massachusetts    by  parallel  routes  to  Albany,  through  the   Mohawk 
Valley,  and  the  centre  of  New- York  State,  to  Buffalo,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis. 

3.  The   New   York  and  Erie  Road,  from  New- York  City  via  the 
Delaware,  Susquehanna,  and  Chemung  valleys,  to  Buffalo,  Cleveland, 
and  Chicago. 

4.  The  Pennsylvania  Central,  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia,  via 
the    Susquehanna    and    Juniata    valleys,   to    Pittsburg;    thence    to 
Chicago  or  St.  Louis. 

5.  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  from  Baltimore  to  Washington, 
through  the  Potomac  Valley  to  Wheeling  and  Chicago,  or  to  Cincin- 
nati and  St.  Louis. 

6.  Norfolk  and   Western   Railroad,   from    Norfolk  or  Richmond, 

1  Trace  these  routes  on  the  commercial  map.     Draw  on  blackboard. 


TRUNK  LINES  351 

through  Lynchburg  and  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee,  to  Chattanooga 
and  Memphis ;  or  from  Chattanooga  by  way  of  Birmingham,  Ala.,  to 
New  Orleans. 

7.  Central  Georgia  Railroad,  from  Savannah  and  Charleston,  by 
way  of  Macon,  Montgomery,  and  Jackson,  to  Vicksburg  or  New 
Orleans. 

These  great  trunk  lines  are  connected  with  one  another 
by  numerous  lines  running  north  and  south,1  so  that  all 
places  of  any  importance  can  be  reached  now  by  railroad. 

Western  Half. 

The  Mississippi  Valley  is  connected  with  the  Pacific  coast 
by  four  trunk  lines  :  — 

1.  The  Northern  Pacific \  from  St.  Paul  and  Duluth,  by  the  valleys 
of   the   Missouri,  Clarke's   Fork,  Columbia  River,  to  Portland  and 
Olympia  on  Puget  Sound. 

2.  Union  Pacific,  from  Chicago  by  Council  Bluffs,  and  west  via  the 
Platte  Valley,  or  St.  Louis,  by  Kansas  City  and  Denver,  .Cheyenne, 
Ogdcn,  to  San  Francisco. 

3.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  from  Kansas  City,  by  the  Arkansas 
Valley,  Pueblo,  Santa  Fe,  to  San  Francisco. 

4.  Southern  Pacific,  from  New  Orleans,  by  Austin,  El  Paso,  and 
Gila  valleys,  to  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco. 

Mexico. 

1.  The  Central  Mexican,  from  El  Paso  via  Chihuahua  to  City  of 
Mexico. 

2.  Mexican  Railway,  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico. 

3.  Mexican  National,  from  Laredo  on  the  Rio  Grande,  by  Monterey 
and  Satillo,  to  City  of  Mexico.     Narrow  Gauge,  two  thousand  miles 
long,  three  hundred  miles  not  finished  (1886). 

The  trade  of  the  sparse  population  west  of  the  looth 
meridian  has  not  yet  required  so  many  cross-roads  from 
north  to  south  as  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 

1  From  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  to  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coasts. 


352  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Narrow-gauge  roads  are  now  being  built  in  the  Pacific 
Highlands  region.  The  United  States  has  more  miles  of 
railroad  than  any  other  country  in  the  world ;  the  amount 
being  now  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  miles, 
eight  thousand  of  which  were  built  and  completed  in  1886  ; 
one  million  persons  are  employed  to  run  them. 

This  would  equal  three  hundred  thousand  miles  of  rails, 
—  enough  in  length  to  make  twelve  steel  girdles  for  the 
earth's  circumference,  or  to  reach  thousands  of  miles 
beyond  the  moon. 

Europe  has  about  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand  miles  of 
railroad,  and  two  hundred  thousand  miles  of  telegraph, 
including  the  lines  through  Siberia. 

The  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  crossed  by  a  railroad,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  costly  routes  known  to  modern  civilization. 
It  is  said  that  a  hundred  thousand  people  died  from  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  climate  while  it  was  being  con- 
structed. 

Some  of  the  noted  iron  bridges  for  railroads  are  the 
Britannia  over  Menai  Straits,  built  by  Stephenson  in  1850, 
1,511  feet  long;  the  Victoria  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  built 
by  Stephenson  in  1859,  7,200  feet  long;  the  St.  Louis  over 
the  Mississippi,  built  by  Eads  in  1874,  1,524  feet  long; 
the  Wuzerabad  over  the  Punjaub,  9,300  feet  long,  finished 
in  1875  ;  the  Cantilever  over  the  Niagara  below  the  Falls, 
built  by  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad,  910  feet;  the 
Brooklyn  over  the  Hudson,  3,455  feet  long,  210  feet  high, 
built  by  Roebling,  aided  by  his  wife  (begun  in  1870,  finished 
in  1883).  Poughkeepsie  Bridge  is  to  be  2,694  feet  long. 

The  St.- Gothard  railway  starts  from  the  Lake  of  Lucerne 
in  Switzerland,  passes  through  the  nine-mile  mountain  tunnel, 


ST.    GOTHARD   RAILWAY  353 

three  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  descends  to 
Lugano  on  Lake  Maggiore,  Italy,  a  distance  of  a  hundred 
miles,  which  is  pursued  in  spirals  and  curves  along  the 
mountain-sides,  and  through  tunnels  and  galleries  of  greater 
or  less  extent.  Besides  the  great  tunnel,  with  its  length  of 
nine  and  a  quarter  miles,  there  are  fifty-two  smaller  ones, 
with  an  aggregate  length  of  fifteen  miles.  The  nature  of 
the  valley  requires  that  several  of  these  tunnels  should  be 
constructed  in  a  spiral,  instead  of  making,  as  is  usual,  long 
curves.  In  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Reuss  the  road  is 
doubled  on  itself,  like  a  winding-stair ;  and  the  difference  in 
grade  is  surmounted  within  a  tunnel.  In  one  place  the 
railroad  rises  thus  over  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  by  means 
of  three  tunnels.  Between  Airolo  and  Lugano  on  the 
Italian  side  of  the  Alps,  there  are  four  other  spiral  tunnels, 
each  of  which  is  about  a  mile  in  length.  The  cost  of  this 
railroad  was  $47,600,000,  contributed  by  the  Italian  and 
Swiss  governments.  The  railroad  bridges  of  the  United 
States  would  reach  from  New  York  to  Liverpool.1 

Some  well-managed  railroads  are  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment road  from  Trieste,  over  the  Austrian  Alps,  to  Vienna ; 
the  London  and  North  Western  road  .  in  England ;  the 
Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  in  Massachusetts ;  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburg. 

Some  railroads  which  reach  high  elevations  are  the 
Union  Pacific,  United  States ;  the  railroad  from  Callao  to 
Oroya  in  South  America.  This  road  crosses  the  Andes 
through  a  tunnel  which  is  three  miles  above  the  sea,  and 
it  passes  a  mountain  gorge  on  the  highest  bridge  in  the 
world. 

1  For  pictures  of  noted  railroad  bridges,  see  Scribner's  Magazine  for  July,  1888. 


354  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Specimen  Time-Table. 
BOSTON  TO  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

Leave  Boston  about  6  P.M.  .        .     Arrive  New  York  7  A.M.,  233  miles. 
Leave  New  York  (Pennsylvania 

Railroad)  8  A.M     .        .        .     Arrive  St.  Louis  7.30  P.M.  second 

day,  1,298  miles. 
Leave  St.  Louis  9  P.M.         .         .     Arrive    Kansas   City  9  A.M.  third 

day,  1,6 1  o  miles. 
Leave  Kansas  City  at  10  A.M.     .     Arrive    El    Paso    4.30    P.M.    fifth 

day,  2,456  miles. 
Leave  El  Paso  6.30  P.M.      .        .     Arrive   City  of   Mexico   7.30  A.M. 

eighth  day,  3,883  miles. 

IMPORTANT   WATER-ROUTES 
Natural  Routes  for  Foreign  Commerce. 

I.  Liverpool  to  New  York;  to  Quebec;  to  Bombay  via  Suez 
Canal,  or  round  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  to  Point  de  Golle,  Madras, 
and  Calcutta;  to  Singapore;  to  Hong  Kong;  to  Melbourne;  to 
Aspinwall ;  to  Para ;  to  Rio  Janeiro. 

2.  New  York  to   Liverpool:    to   Havana;   to   New   Orleans;  to 
Aspinwall ;  to  Para ;  to  Rio  Janeiro ;  to  Valparaiso;  to  San  Francisco ; 
to  Cape  Town. 

[The  route  across  the  Atlantic,  from  New  York  to  Liver- 
pool, is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  in  the  world.  Why? 
Give  two  or  more  reasons.] 

3.  San  Francisco  to  Panama;  to  Callao;  to  Yokohama;  to  Hong 
Kong;    to   Honolulu;    to  Auckland   and    Melbourne;    to    Portland, 
Ore.;   to  Sitka. 

4.  Marseilles  or  Havre  to  ports  in  the  Mediterranean;  through 
the  Suez  Canal  to  Bombay,' etc. ;    to  Buenos  Ayres;  to  Aspinwall; 
to  Martinique;  to  New  York. 

5.  The  rivers  Mersey,- Thames,  Danube,  Elbe,  and  Weser. 


WATER-ROUTES  IN  COMMERCE 


Natural  Water-Routes  for  Domestic  Commerce. 


355 


1.  From  the  vicinity  of  Chicago,  by  the  Mississippi  River  and  its 
branches,  to  New  Orleans. 

2.  From  the   Great   Lakes,  by  the    St.   Lawrence    River,  to   the 
ocean. 

3.  Down  the  Hudson  River  to  New  York. 

There  are  over  fifty  thousand  miles  of  navigable  rivers  in 
North  America,  besides  the  Great  Lakes  witty  their  thou- 
sands of  miles  of  fresh-water  shores. 

Artificial  Wat  or- Routes  for  Domestic  Commerce. 
United-States  and  Canadian  Canals. 

1.  The  Erie  Canal  connects  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake  Erie  at 
Buffalo,  352  miles.     It  is  used  largely  for  transporting  grain  to  the 
sea-board. 

2.  Three  canals  connect  Lake  Erie  with  the  Ohio  River,  and  are 
used  for  general  merchandise. 

3.  Numerous  canals  are  used  in  the  valleys  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
the  Potomac  Valley  in  Maryland,  for  transporting  coal  and  iron  ore 
from  the  mountains  where  they  have  been  mined,  to  the  cities  where 
they  are  used. 

4.  The  Welland  Canal,  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  27  miles, 
to  avoid  the  Niagara  River  and  Fails. 

5.  Several  canals  around  rapids  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  near 
Montreal,  such  as  the  Lachine  and  Beauharnois  canals. 

6.  The  Rideau  Canal,  from  Ottawa  to  Kingston,  Lake  Ontario. 

7.  A  canal  around   the  rapids  in  the   St.  Mary's  River,  between 
Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron. 

There  are  about  four  thousand  miles  of  canal  in  the 
Middle  and  Central  States. 


356  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Other  Countries. 

Suez  Canal,  92  miles;  finished  1869;  cost  $85,000,000. 

Canals  are  numerous  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Russia,  India, 
Holland,  and  Austria. 

There  are  many  in  China;  the  most  important  is  the  Imperial 
Canal,  from  Pekin  to  Shanghai,  —  the  longest  in  the  world,  2,100 
miles,  and  the  most  used.  The  Vishney,  in  Russia,  connects  St. 
Petersburg  with  the  Caspian  Sea,  1,434  miles. 

Proposed  Artificial  Routes. 

1.  Panama  Canal. 

2.  Cape-Cod  Canal. 

These  are  now  being  constructed.  [When  finished,  how 
will  they  affect  trade  ?] 

The  assistance  of  the  postal  service,  and  lines  of  telegraph 
and  telephone,  is  employed  to  direct  all  this  commerce. 

Over  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  miles  of  telegraph 
are  now  daily  used  in  the  United  States,  and  nearly  three 
hundred  thousand  miles  in  Europe. 

Five  ocean  cables  are  in  use  now  between  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  and  the  traffic  over  them  amounts  to  as 
much  as  fifty  thousand  words  in  a  day.  There  is  a  line 
between  England  and  India,  China  and  Japan,  France  and 
West  Indies,  East  Indies  and  Australia,  Lisbon  and  Brazil. 

The  facts  of  commerce  may  be  presented  in  a  variety 
of  ways.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  are  the  three  fol- 
lowing :  — 

1.  Emphasize  the  Great  Commercial  Centres  of  Trade. 

2.  Take  a  commercial  trip  round  the  world,  starting  near 
home,  and  gathering  up  the  exports. 


CENTRES   FOR  RAW  MATERIALS  357 

3.  Make  out  a  list  of  the  three  leading  exports  from  the 
three  greatest  exporting  towns  in  each  continent.  This 
makes  a  pretty  review  lesson. 

The  following  were 

SPECIAL  COMMERCIAL  CENTRES  IN  1888 
[  The  largest  centres  are  generally  mentioned first^\ 

RAW    MATERIALS 

Caoutchouc.     Para,  Tamatav. 

Coffee.     Rio    Janeiro,    Maracaibo,    Santos,    Batavia    (Java),    Vera 

Cruz,  Padang. 

Coal.     Philadelphia,  Newcastle,  Halifax. 
Copper.     Lake  Superior,  Cornwall,  Valparaiso,  Sydney. 
Cotton.     New   Orleans,   Mobile,   Galveston,   Savannah,   Charleston, 

Calcutta,  Alexandria. 

Fruits.     Havana,  Kingston,  Malaga,  Madeira  Islands,  Smyrna,  Jack- 
sonville, Azores. 

Furs.     London,  Yakutsk,  Victoria,  Okhotsk,  St.  Petersburg,  Sitka. 
Hides.     Montevideo,  Rio  Janeiro,  Cape  Town,  Vera  Cruz. 
Gold.     Melbourne,  San  Francisco,  Russia,  Auckland. 
Iron.     Liverpool,  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg. 
Petroleum.     Philadelphia,  New  York,  Pittsburg,  Baltimore. 
Rice.     Charleston,  Calcutta,  Rangoon,  Yokohama,  Batavia. 
Salt.     Saginaw,  Syracuse,  Turk's  Island,  Lisbon,  Cracow  (Poland). 
Silk.     Canton,  Shanghai,  Hong  Kong,  Yokohama,  Marseilles,  Genoa, 

Leghorn. 

Silver.     San  Francisco,  Acapulco  (Mexico),  Valparaiso. 
Spices.     Batavia,  Amboyna,  Hong  Kong,  Singapore,  Cayenne,   Rio 

Janeiro. 
Sugar.     Havana,   Mauritius,   Rio    Janeiro,   New    Orleans,    Batavia, 

Manilla,  Honolulu. 
Sulphur.     Messina  (Sicily). 

Tea.     Canton,  Hankow,  Foochow,  Shanghai,  Calcutta,  Yokohama. 
Tin.     Cornwall  (England),  Singapore. 
Tobacco.     Virginia,  Baltimore,  Havana,  Constantinople,  New  York, 

Manilla. 


358         METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Wine.     Marseilles,    Bordeaux,    Bremen,    Oporto,     Madeira    Islands, 

Melbourne,  Cape  Town,  Lisbon,  San  Francisco. 
Wheat.     Chicago,  New  York,  San  Francisco,  Dantzic,  Odessa. 
Wool.     Melbourne,  San  Francisco,  Cape  Town,  Auckland,  Valparaiso. 

OTHER    ARTICLES 

Art.     Paris,  Rome,  London. 

Fancy  Goods.     Paris,  England,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Boston. 

Iron.     England;  Pittsburg,  Penn. 

Machinery.     England. 

Ships.     Glasgow. 

MANUFACTURED    GOODS  — CLOTHING 

Cotton   Goods.      In   England;   Manchester,   Glasgow,   Preston:    in 
United  States :  Lowell,  Manchester,  Lawrence,  Fall  River,  New 
.  Bedford,  Atlanta ;  Germany,  Russia,  France. 
Linen  Goods.     Belfast,  Bremen,  Hamburg. 
Silk  Goods.     Lyons,  Avignon,   Tours  (France),  Amsterdam,  China, 

Japan. 
Woollen  Goods.     Leeds,  Bradford,  Bremen,  Hamburg. 

In  the  United  States. 

The  New  England  States  supply  such  manufactures  as  cotton  cloth, 

boots,  shoes,  and  "  notions." 
The  Middle  States  supply  similar  manufactures,  and  coal,  iron,  and 

petroleum. 

The  Central  States  supply  grain  and  meat. 

The  North-Western  States  supply  grain,  lumber,  copper,  and  iron  ore. 
The  Sotithern  States  supply  cotton,  rice,  and  sugar. 
The  Rocky  Mountain  States  and  J^erritories  supply  gold  and  silver. 
California  and  Oregon  supply  gold,  wheat,  and  wool. 

Commercial  Trip  round  the  World  for  Exports. 

[  The  class  will  enjoy  this  all  the  more,  if  the  teacher  suggest  that  they 
imagine  themselves  on  board  of  a  great  steamer  like  a  "  Cunarder".] 

Boston.     Grain,  cotton  manufactures,  bacon  and  hams,  lard,  leather, 
tobacco. 


A   COMMERCIAL  TRIP  359 

New  York.     Breadstuff's,  petroleum,  pork,  and  lard. 

Philadelphia      Wheat   and   flour,   cotton    manufactures,   bacon    and 

hams,  petroleum. 
Charleston.     Sea-Island  cotton. 
New  Orleans.     Cotton,  breadstuffs,  oilcake. 
Vera  Cruz.     Silver,  hennequen  (or  sisal  hemp),  coffee. 
Havana.     Sugar,  cigars,  molasses. 
Para.     India-rubber,  Peruvian-bark. 
Rio  Janeiro.     Coffee,  sugar,  diamonds,  hides,  cotton. 
Buenos  Ayres.     Animal  products,  grain,  wool. 
Valparaiso.     Wheat,  copper,  wool,  nitrate,  sugar. 
San  Francisco.     Wheat,  precious   metals,  cotton   cloth,   gunpowder, 

wine. 

Yokohama.     Silk,  tea,  rice,  cuttle  fish,  copper,  camphor. 
Hong  Kong.     Tea,  silk,  sugar,  straw-braid,  hides,  cotton,  fire-crackers. 
Singapore.     Spices,  sugar,  tin,  indigo,  and  rattan. 
Batavia.     Spices,  tin. 

Melbourne.     Gold,  wool,  live-stock,  tin,  sugar,  coal. 
Calcutta.     Grain,  cotton,  seeds,  opium,  jute,  tea,  rice,  wool,  indigo. 
Odessa.     Grain,  wool,  hemp. 

Trieste.     Sugar,  wood,  grain,  clockwork,  woollen  manufactures. 
Marseilles.     Wine,  silk,  woollen  manufactures. 
Malaga.     Fruits,  wine,  and  raisins. 

Havre.     Articles  of  taste  and  fashion  made  in  Paris ;  brandy. 
Amsterdam.     Drugs,  butter,  iron,  sugar. 
Riga.     Flax,  hemp,  timber,  cattle  products,  furs. 
Liverpool.     Cotton  manufactures,  woollen  manufactures,  iron,   and 

machinery. 

THE  THREES  OF  COMMERCE 

First  Set  of  Threes. 

\The  largest  in  value  mentioned  first] 

i.  EUROPE. 

a.  Liverpool    exports:     I.    Cotton    manufactures.      2.    Woollen 

manufactures.     3.  Iron  and  machinery. 

b.  Marseilles  exports:    I.  Wine.     2.  Silk.     3.  Woollen  manufac- 

tures. 

c.  Hamburg  exports :  I.  Woollen  manufactures.    2.  Sugar.    3.  Silk 

manufactures. 


360     •  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

2.  NORTH  AMERICA. 

a.  New-York  exports:    i.    Breadstuffs.     2.  Petroleum.     3.  Pork 

and  lard. 

b.  New-Orleans  exports :  i.  Cotton.    2.  Breadstuffs.    3.  Oilcake. 

c.  San  Francisco  exports:    i.  Wheat.      2.    Precious   metals.     3. 

Cotton  cloth. 

3.  ASIA. 

a.  Hong- Kong  exports  :  I.  Tea.     2.  Silk.     3.  Chinese  wares. 

b.  Yokohama  exports  :  i.  Silk.     2.  Tea.     3.  Rice. 

c.  Calcutta  exports :  i.  Grain.     2.  Cotton.     3.  Opium. 

Second  Set  of  Threes. 

1.  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

a.  Rio  Janeiro  exports :  i.  Coffee.     2.  Sugar.     3.  Diamonds. 

b.  Buenos  Ayres   exports :    I.   Animal   products.     2.    Wool.     3. 

Grain. 

c.  Valparaiso  exports :  I.  Wheat.     2.  Copper.     3.  Wool. 

2.  AUSTRALIA. 

a.  Melbourne  exports  :  i.  Gold.     2.  Wool.     3.  Live-stock. 

b.  Sydney  exports :  i.  Wool.     2.  Wheat.     3.  Tin. 

c.  Auckland  exports :  i.  Wool.     2.  Gold.     3.  Lumber. 

3.  AFRICA. 

a.  Alexandria   exports :    i.  Cotton.     2.  Cotton-seed.     3.  Beans. 

b.  Cape- Town   exports:    I.    Diamonds.      2.    Wool.     3.    Ostrich 

feathers. 

c.  Algiers  exports :  i.  Grain.     2.  Cattle.     3.  Cork. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  -PRODUCTIONS,  EXPORTS, 
AND  IMPORTS 


THOSE  who  command  the  sea,  command  the  trade  of  the  world ; 
those  who  command  the  trade  of  the  world,  command  the  riches  of 
the  world,  and  thus  command  the  world  itself.  —  Raleigh. 


BOOKS  FOR  CONSULTATION 


BROWN'S  MANUAL  OF  COMMERCE. 

MARTIN'S  STATESMAN'S  YEAR  BOOK. 

PARLIAMENT'S  ANNUAL  TRADE  AND  SHIPPING  STATEMENT. 

SPOFFORD'S  AMERICAN  ALMANAC.     (Published  every  March.) 

UNITED-STATES  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 

YEATS'S  RECENT  AND  EXISTING  COMMERCE. 

362 


CHAPTER   XVII 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  -PRODUCTIONS,  EXPORTS, 
AND  IMPORTS 

FACTS  —  TRADITIONARY  GEOGRAPHY  —  MODERN  COMMERCE  —  SPENDS  MONEY  — 
GOODS  CARRIED  GREAT  DISTANCES  —  DIAMONDS  —  OSTRICH  -FEATHERS  —  HOW  TO 
TEACH  COMMERCE  —  THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTIONS  —  LEADING  PRODUCTIONS  OF 
LEADING  COUNTRIES  —  LEADING  EXPORTS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES  —  LEADING 
IMPORTS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES  —  EXPORTS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  —  IMPORTS  OF 
GREAT  BRITAIN 


facts  which  follow,  in  reference  to  productions, 
-L  exports,  and  imports,  have  been  collected  with  the 
greatest  care  and  labor,  and  are  presented  with  confidence, 
coming,  as  most  of  them  do,  from  the  United-States  Con- 
sular Reports,  and  from  the  Trade,  Navigation,  and  Ship- 
ping Annual  Statements  presented  to  Parliament,  England, 
in  1886. 

The  statements  herein  made  differ  widely  from  some  of 
our  geographical  text-books,  because  the  text-books  are 
giving  traditionary  geography,  or  teach  commerce  from  a 
different  standpoint  than  the  real  business  of  the  present 
day.  In  all  cases,  in  this  book,  the  most  important  articles, 
according  to  value,  are  mentioned,  rather  than  the  peculiar 
articles  of  the  country. 

For  example  :  some  of  the  best  geographies  teach  that 
the  exports  of  Mexico  are  "  gold,  silver,  cattle,  hides,  and 
cochineal."  The  recent  consular  reports  show  that  the 
exports  from  Mexico  are,  according  to  value,  "  silver,  henne- 

363 


364  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

quen,  woods,  coffee,  hides  and  skins,  and  vanilla."  The 
geography  referred  to  has  only  two  right  out  of  six.  Very 
little  gold  is  exported  from  Mexico  at  the  present  time ; 
and  over  twenty  articles  are  mentioned  in  the  consular 
report  before  cochineal  is  reached,  by  value  of  exports. 

The  exports  of  Egpyt  and  India,  as  usually  given,  are 
not  much  nearer  the  facts  in  consular  reports. 

If  the  faith  of  teacher  and  pupil  in  text-books  is  some- 
what shaken  by  the  facts  given  below,  taken  from  the  highest 
and  most  recent  authorities,  no  great  harm  will  be  done. 
The  author  asks  that  teacher  and  pupil  may  together  search 
for  the  truth,  and  correct  all  errors  stated  in  the  following 
pages,  remembering  that  "  To  err  is  human." 

Facts  about  Modern  Commerce. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  amounts  to 
about  $1,600,000,000  annually.  Almost  one-half  of  this 
commerce  is  with  Great  Britain,  one-tenth  with  France, 
and  about  the  same  with  Germany  and  with  the  West  Indies. 

Fifty-five  per  cent,  or  over  one-half  of  our  foreign  com- 
merce, passes  through  the  port  of  New  York. 

[Why  is  New  York  favorably  situated  to  manage  this 
commerce  ?] 

Seventy-seven  per  cent  of  these  exports  are  derived  from 
agriculture,  such  as  cotton  and  grain.  Fourteen  per  cent 
come  from  manufactures,  and  seven  per  cent  from  mining. 

The  value  of  the  manufactured  exports  in  1880  was  more 
than  twice  as  much  as  it  was  in  1860. 

The  most  important  imports  of  the  United  States  are  the 
following,  named  in  order  of  value  :  — 

Sugar  and  molasses,  wool  and  woollen  manufactures,  silk 


MODERN   COMMERCE  365 

and  silk  manufactures ;  chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  and  medi- 
cines ;  coffee,  iron  and  steel,  cotton  goods. 

Two-thirds  of  the  exports  from  the  United  States  are  now 
carried  in  steam-vessels. 

Four-fifths  of  the  grain  and  flour  from  the  West  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  is  transported  by  rail,  and  only  one-fifth 
by  the  Lakes,  Erie  Canal,  and  Hudson  River.  Much  of  the 
Southern  cotton  is  now  moved  by  rail. 

Great  Britain  has  the  most  commerce  with  her  various 
colonies ;  then  come,  in  order,  the  United  States,  France, 
Germany,  Holland,  Russia,  and  Belgium. 

The  United  States  imports  the  most  from  Great  Britain ; 
and  then,  in  order,  come  Cuba,  France,  Germany,  and 
Brazil. 

The  United  States  exports  the  most  to  Great  Britain  ;  then 
follow,  in  order,  Germany,  France,  Cuba,  and  Brazil.  One- 
fifth  of  the  commerce  of  France  is  with  the  United  States. 

Modern  commerce  and  travel  have  built  many  great  iron 
bridges ;  steamers,  costing  millions  of  dollars  apiece,  which 
can  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  six  days ;  laid  thousands  of 
miles  of  cable  ;  tunnelled  twice  the  Alps,  once  the  Pyrenees ; 
crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  with  railroad  and  canal,  and 
made  the  Red  Sea  again  a  place  of  busy  life,  opening  old 
harbors  choked  for  a  thousand  years  with  mud  and  sand. 

The  number  of  ships  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal  in 
1886  was  over  three  thousand,  mostly  English  steamers. 
The  canal  now  pays  dividends  of  seven  per  cent  on  total 
cost.  The  canal  shortens  the  voyage  between  England  and 
the  East  by  one-third ;  that  is,  it  enables  two  vessels  to  do 
the  work  that  would  require  three  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 


366  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Modern  commerce  has  greatly  cheapened  the  cost  of 
food ;  so  that  flour  can  be  made  in  the  West  (Minneapolis), 
and  sold  in  Boston  at  an  advance  per  barrel  of  only  seventy- 
five  cents. 

In  1815,  in  London,  no  one  believed  wheat  would  ever 
reach  only  eighty  shillings  a  quarter;  but  wheat,  in  1886, 
was  raised  in  Minnesota,  and  carried  to  London,  and  sold 
for  thirty  shillings  a  quarter,  at  a  fair  profit.  New  Zealand 
now  sends  in  one  ship  twenty  thousand  frozen  carcasses 
of  sheep  to  feed  the  millions  of  hungry  mouths  in  London. 
Australia  sends  millions  of  tins  of  preserved  fresh  meats; 
and  America  sends  cargoes  of  cattle,  alive  or  dead. 

A  merchant  in  Liverpool  can  send  his  order  by  cablegram 
to  Chicago,  —  four  thousand  miles  away,  —  for  a  thousand 
barrels  of  flour,  and  in  twenty-one  days  receive  the  same 
at  his  store. 

In  many  a  peaceful  village  nestling  beneath  the  glaciers 
of  the  Alps,  myriads  of  hands  are  at  work  on  shoes  for 
British  feet,  or  clocks  for  American  housekeepers,  compen- 
sated for  the  distance  from  the  market  by  the  cheap  transit. 

England  pays  out  annually  two  hundred  million  dollars 
for  foreign  produce,  which  Professor  Tanner  and  others 
think  she  could  raise  at  home. 

Eggs  from  Copenhagen  and  Rotterdam  are  brought  to 
New- York  City,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  "  Ohio  Butter 
and  Egg  Packers'  Association." 

The  Express  Business. 

Express  companies  in  this  country  are  now  doing  an 
immense  business.  These  companies  and  the  post -office 
department  carry,  at  cheap  rates,  great  quantities  of  goods, 


DIAMONDS  AND  OSTRICH-FEATHERS  367 

not  merely  short,  but  long,  distances.  Some  of  the  well- 
known  express  companies  are  Adams,  United  States, 
American,  and  National. 

Diamonds 

Are  now  exported  from  Port  Elizabeth  and  Cape  Town, 
from  Rio  Janeiro  and  Sydney.  The  United  States  imports 
mostly  rough  stones  from  Cape  Town.  The  Brazilian 
fields  are  now  almost  abandoned.  The  new  Rush  mine  of 
Kimberly,  near  the  Vaal  River,  South  Africa,  has  fur- 
nished so  many  diamonds  during  the  last  five  years  that 
the  price  is  now  only  one-fourth  of  what  it  formerly  was. 
Diamonds  are  irregular  in  shape,  and  unattractive  in  appear- 
ance, when  first  found.  The  cutting  and  polishing  of  the 
stones,  is  done  principally  at  Amsterdam  and  Antwerp. 

Ostrich-Feathers 

Are  brought  to  the  United  States  from  Port  Elizabeth 
and  Cape  Town,  Africa.  Flocks  of  ostriches  are  found 
all  over  Cape  Colony,  and  the  Cape  farmers  buy  and  sell 
them  as  they  do  sheep ;  fence  the  flocks  in,  grow  crops 
for  them,  study  their  habits,  and  cut  their  feathers,  as 
matters  of  business.  The  value  of  the  feathers  exported  in 
1882  was  over  five  million  dollars.  The  farmers  became 
infatuated  with  the  business  when  the  feathers  sold  readily 
for  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  pound,  and  they  gave 
up  wool-growing  as  too  slow  a  way  of  making  money.  The 
number  of  ostriches  has  recently  become  so  great,  that  the 
markets  are  overstocked  with  feathers,  and  the  price  has 
gone  down  to  fifty  dollars  per  pound ;  so  the  farmers  in 
some  places  are  turning  their  birds  loose  upon  the  plains. 


368  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Directions  to  Teachers.  —  Do  not  ask  the  children  to  learn  this 
mass  of  facts,  but  to  use  such  of  these  facts  as  you  recommend  for 
reference  and  composition.  Select  some  of  the  most  important, 
write  them  on  the  board,  and  let  the  children  compare  one  country 
with  another  in  reference  to  amount  and  kind  of  leading  productions 
or  exports. 

Ask  on  the  board  such  questions  as  these  :  — 

What  countries  probably  send  hides  to  England?  ivory?  apples? 
meat?  cotton?  silk?  rice?  timber? 

England,  France,  and  Germany  export  woollen  -goods :  what 
countries  import  these  same  goods  ? 

If  a  ship  from  the  United  States  sail  for  Liverpool,  what  will  it 
carry  out,  and  what  bring  back? 

What  articles  were  probably  carried  in  the  following  steamers? 

Steamers  Sailing  from  New  York. 

City  of  Richmond For  Liverpool,  March  25. 

Ethiopia .  "  Glasgow,  March  26. 

Saale "  Bremen,  March  28. 

Wieland "  Hamburg,  March  29. 

Rotterdam      .........  "  Rotterdam,  March  31. 

La  Bretagne   ...?.....  "  Havre,  March  31. 

Zeeland  ..........  "  Antwerp,  March  31. 

Chateau  Margaux '•'  Bordeaux,  April  3. 

Geiser "  Copenhagen,  April  7. 

Zaandam         .........  "  Amsterdam,  April  7. 

The  daily  imports  and  exports  of  Boston  may  be  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  class  by  some  selected  member,  who  will  perhaps 
read  from  the  morning  "  Advertiser  "  extracts  from  the  <J  Trade  and 
Commerce  "  reports,  as  follows :  — 

Imports  at  Boston. 

CARDENAS.     Bark  Tremont,  775  hhds.  68  tierces  molasses,  W.  H.  Emerson. 

CEBIT.  Bark  Bowman  B.  Low,  31,579  bags  sugar,  Standard  Sugar  Refinery; 
4,100  bales  hemp  order.  • 

ROSARIO.  Bark  Samuel  B.  Hale,  10,000  dry  ox  and  cow  hides,  35  bales  goat 
skins,  15  do.  hide  cuttings,  Baring  Bros.  &  Co;  35  bales  wool,  40  do.  goat  skins, 
30  do.  hair,  4  pkgs.  stag  skins,  N.  W.  Rice  &  Co.;  8  cases  effects,  John  Duane; 
i  do.  do.,  A.  &  S.  E.  Spring;  20  lining  hides  order. 


EXPORTS  AND   PRODUCTIONS 


369 


Foreign  Exports. 

LONDON,  ENG.  Steamer  Borderer  (eld.  March  24);  12  crates  i  box  organs; 
i  blower;  20  cases  i  bdl.  organ  materials;  247  tierces  tallow  oil;  5  baskets  gutta- 
percha;  204  bales  cotton  waste;  5,600  bdls.  80  cases  shooks;  211  head  cattle; 
i  engine;  i  steam-pump;  16  cases  rubber  boots;  50  cases  chair  stock;  40  logs;  46 
cases  paper;  22  crates  24  cases  fish  glue;  54  pkgs.  pails;  i  case  hardware;  29  do. 
woodenware;  3  do.  drilling;  7,646  pieces  staves;  480  pieces  walnut  lumber;  4  cases 
machinery;  i  pole;  i  case  rakes;  9  cases  scythes;  i  do.  snaths;  2  do.  agricultural 
implements;  i  do.  samples;  i  do.  washboards;  i  box  whetstones;  i  case  oars;  i  box 
sewer-pipe;  i  bbl.  i  box  machinery;  2  cases  brushes;  600  casks  cider;  240  bags 
asbestos;  11,564  bush,  wheat;  575  tierces  lard;  15  do.  tobacco;  52,005  sacks  flour; 
50  boxes  bacon  ;  200  do.  dyestufifs;  40  cases  medicines;  4  do.  soap;  26  bags  81  bales 
6  cases  leather. 

GLASGOW,  SCOT.  Steamer  Siberian  (eld.  March  22);  28,561  sacks  flour; 
21,411  bush,  wheat;  330  pkgs.  tubes;  13  do.  oil-stoves  ;«3  pkgs.  castings;  27,150  Ibs. 
cheese;  1,300  cases  canned  meats;  1,589  bbls.  apples;  1,910  pkgs.  butter  tubs;  45 
pkgs.  hams;  10  cases  35  bdls.  handles;  170  tierces  lard;  65  boxes  plough  castings; 
9  cases  hammer  head  axes;  400  he.id  cattle;  10  bbls.  ink;  i  do.  oysters;  14  cases 
organs;  i  organ  top;  4  bales  i  case  24  bdls.  leather;  i  box  books;  3,600  pieces 
staves;  340  empty  bbls.  and  casks;  49  bbls.  pegs. 

Ask  such  questions  as  these  :  — 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  barque  and  a  schooner? 

Where  is  Rosario  ? 

What  is  the  most  valuable  article  exported  to  London? 

Do  we  export  much  machinery  to  England  ?     Why  not? 

Find  four  important  exports  from  the  above  list. 

Who  are  Baring  Bros.  &  Co.  ? 

What  is  meant  by  "4  do.  soap"? 

The  World's  Leading  Commercial  Productions. 

A  rranged  according  to  value. 


The  United  States  stands  first  in  the  production  of  cereals,  the  value  in  1886  being 
$1,161,215,453;  Russia  comes  next,  with  $1,109,159,673;  Germany  is  third,  the 
values  being  $750,148,109;  and  Austria-Hungary  fourth,  with  $648,043,475.  Great 
Britain,  including  India,  Australia,  Canada,  and  all  its  other  colonies  and  depen- 
dencies, only  produced  cereals  to  the  value  of  $437,282,910,  which  is  $8,000,000  less 
than  the  production  of  France. 

In   the   production   of  potatoes,   the  United    States  is 


370  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

$73,302,480.  Russia  is  first  in  this,  with  $450,000,000,  the  German  Empire  second, 
with  $263,550,090:  and  Austria-Hungary  third,  with  $158,840,445.  In  orchard-fruits, 
Germany  is  first,  producing  $62,943,623;  and  the  United  States  second,  with 
$51,756,847. 

The  United  States  produces  $233,443,356  of  cotton  and  cotton-seed  oil;  British 
India,  $83,121,980;  and  Egypt  gives  $43,805,460  for  export. 

The  value  of  the  live-stock  in  the  United  States  is  $1,279,560,190,  which  is  more 
than  the  combined  value  of  the  stock  of  all  other  countries.  Russia  and  Great  Britain 
each  have  $80,000,000;  Germany,  $60,000,000;  and  Austria-Hungary,  $35,000,000. 
In  dairy  products  Germany  leads,  with  $83,573,000;  the  United  States  being  second, 
with  $50,482,186. 

In  hay  Great  Britain  produces  more  than  all  the  world,  the  value  being  $1,200,- 
000,000;  the  United  States  is  second,  with  $550,000,000;  Austria-Hungary  third,  with 
$261,000,000;  and  Germany  fourth,  with  $175,000,000. 

In  the  production  of  sugar  and  molasses  Germany  ranks  first,  the  value  being 
$190,000,000  in  1885,  which  was  largely  increased  in  1886;  Cuba  is  second,  with 
$113,960,000;  Austria-Hungary  third,  $96,850,000;  France  fourth,  $95,289,000; 
Russia  fifth,  with  $85,176,000.  [Let  the  pupils  find  where  the  United  States  stands  ] 

Of  hides  and  tallow  the  United  States  produces  $82,949,207  worth;  Russia  follows 
close  after  with  $81,000,000;  France  is  third,  with  $43,420,000;  Germany  fourth, 
$41,150,000;  and  Austria-Hungary  fifth,  with  $37,480,000. 

As  a  wool-producer  the  United  States  stands  first,  the  values  being  $72,464,201 ; 
Australia  second,  $47,358,000;  the  Argentine  Republic  third,  $455046,855;  Russia 
fourth,  $33,675,200;  Austria-Hungary  fifth,  $30,663,000;  France  sixth,  $16,654,000; 
and  Germany  seventh,  $15,582,000. 

In  wine  and  spiiits  Spain  come§  first,  with  values  of  $178,680,000;  Germany  sec- 
ond, $119,360,000;  Russia  third,  $78,103,750;  the  United  States  fourth,  $76,464,201; 
France  fifth,  $75,767,932;  and  Italy  sixth,  $65,265,000.  In  malt-liquors  Germany 
comes  first,  with  $74,907,588;  and  the  United  States  second,  $61,400,000. 

In  tobacco  and  cigars  France  comes  first,  with  $72,850,000;  Turkey  second,  $60,- 
500,000;  and  the  United  States  third,  with  $44,160,150. 

In  oils  Italy  leads,  with  $80,216,000;  Russia  is  second,  with  $72,500,650;  the 
United  States  third,  $53,905,000. 

In  the  precious  metals  Russia  comes  first  as  to  gold,  with  $54,217,600;  the  United 
States  second,  with  $30,800,000;  Australia  third,  with  $21,000,000.  In  silver  the 
United  States  leads,  $53,800,000;  Mexico  second,  $26,000,000;  Russia  third,  $20,- 
420,000.  Of  the  lesser  metals,  Germany  produces  most  lead,  $18,091,000;  the  United 
States  is  second,  with  $9,186,000;  and  Spain  third,  with  $8,580,000. 

Russia  is  much  the  largest  producer  of  iron  and  steel,  the  values  being  $275,000,- 
ooo;  Great  Britain  comes  second,  with  $210,000,000;  Germany  is  third,  with  $200,- 
000,000;  the  United  States  fourth,  $160,837,500;  and  France  fifth,  $117,000,000. 
Germany  produces  $70,126,000  worth  of  copper  and  tin;  Great  Britain  comes  next, 
with  $28,275,100;  Austria-Hungary  third,  $15,550,000;  and  Chili  fourth,  $15,000,000. 


ANNUAL   INDUSTRIES 


371 


Fig.  62. 

Annual  industries  of  the  World  Jbtal  #  5ipio,ooo,ooo , 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


Manual  industries  op 
the  World.  the  United  States . 


372 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Leading  Productions  of  Leading  Countries,  1888. 
Arranged  according  to  value,  in  most  cases. 


COUNTRIES. 


AUSTRALIA. 


ARGENTINE 
REPUBLIC. 


AUSTRIA. 


BRAZIL. 


CALIFORNIA,  OR 
PACIFIC  STATES. 
CANADA. 

CHILI. 


CHINA. 


CUBA. 

CONGO  FREE 
STATE. 


PRODUCTIONS. 


Wool,  gold,  wheat,  hides, 
skins,  tallow,  frozen 
and  tinned  meats,  and 
copper. 


Wool,  "whole  carcasses  " 
(skins,  hides,  and  tal- 
low], linseed. 

Grain  (400,000,000  bush- 
els), wine,  cattle,  met- 
als, tobacco,  flax,  beer, 
beet  sugar. 

Coffee,  caoutchouc,  cotton, 
hides,  sugar,  dia- 
monds, gold,  cocoa, 
tobacco,  wool. 

Wheat,  gold,  wine,  fruit. 

Timber,  grain,  flax, 
hemp,  butter,  cheese. 

Copper,  wheat,  nitrate 
of  soda. 


Rice,  tea,  silk,  bamboo, 
sugar,  cotton. 

(A  whole  cargo  cannot  be 
obtained  at  one  port.) 

Sugar,  rum,  molasses,  to- 
bacco, coffee,  mahogany. 

Caoutchouc,  ivory,  dye- 
woods,  palm-nuts,  am- 
ber, beeswax. 

(Coal  is  sent  from  Eng- 
land to  Paul  de  Loando.) 


LOCALITIES. 


Wool  in  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,  and  Victoria ; 
gold  in  New  South  Wales  ; 
wheat  in  Victoria,  South 
Australia,  New  Zealand, 
New  South  Wales. 

On  the  pampas. 


Coffee  between  Rio  and 
Parana ;  sugar  in  the  eastern 
part ;  diamonds  among  the 
Bazilian  mountains  ;  caout- 
chouc along  the  Amazon. 

Wheat  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley. 

Forests  between  Hudson  Bay 
and  St.  Lawrence. 

Copper-mines  are  in  the  north  ; 
nitrate  in  the  newly  ac- 
quired land  from  Peru ; 
wheat  in  the  central  part. 

Rice  in  the  south ;  tea  west  of 
Amoy ;  silk  between  28°  and 
•35°N. 

Coffee  on  north  side ;  tobacco 

west  of  Havana. 
Most  of  these  productions  are 

found   in   great    abundance 

along    the    banks     of    the 

Congo  River. 


LEADING  PRODUCTIONS  373 

LEADING  PRODUCTIONS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  {continued}. 


COUNTRIES. 


PRODUCTIONS. 


LOCALITIES. 


EGYPT. 
FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


GREAT 
BRITAIN. 


Cotton,  cotton-seed,  beans, 
sugar,  live-stock,  dates. 

Woollen  goods,  wine,  silk 
goods,  beet  sugar,  silk- 
cocoons,  bran dy, 
wheat  (the  leading 
crop,  but  not  exported) ; 
man  ufact u red  a  r- 
ticles,  such  as  buttons, 
feathers,  flowers,  calf- 
skins, gloves,  laces, 
dress-goods,  shawl  s, 
jewelry,  etc. 

(In  France,  five  persons 
are  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture to  one  in  man- 
ufacturing.) 

Cattle  rearing,  mining, 
and  manufacturing 
are  staple  industries. 
Sugar  and  cereals  for 
England,  silk  manu- 
facturing,cotton  manu- 
facturing, founderies. 

Textile  industries, 
metal  manufactures, 
mining,  besides  enor- 
m  o  us  agricultural 
products. 


Every  thing  is  grown  within  a 
few  miles  of  the  Nile. 

Woollen  goods  in  the  northern 
part,  silk  in  the  south  cen- 
tral, and  wine  and  olives  in 
the  southern  part. 

Paris  manufactures  many 
articles  calling  for  taste 
and  ingenuity. 


Cotton  manufactories  are  in 
Upper  Germany,  Saxony, 
and  Alsace;  silk  is  man- 
ufactured in  Crefeld. 


Iron  in  Yorkshire,  Stafford- 
shire ;  coal  in  South  Wales, 
north-eastern,  and  mid- 
land; textile  industries, — 
lace  in  Nottingham  ;  cotton 
in  Manchester;  woollen  in 
Leeds ;  cutlery  in  Birming- 
ham and  Sheffield ;  ship- 
building on  the  Clyde  ;  linen 
in  Ulster ;  shawls  in  Paisley ; 
carpets  in  Dundee;  tin 
plates  at  Swansea;  plum- 
bago in  the  "  Lake  "  district  j 
tin  in  Cornwall. 


374  METHODS   AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

LEADING  PRODUCTIONS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  (continued). 


COUNTRIES. 


PRODUCTIONS. 


LOCALITIES. 


INDIA. 


ITALY. 


JAPAN. 


MEXICO. 


MIDDLE 
STATES. 


RUSSIA. 


Sugar,  rice,  cotton, grain, 
jute,  opium,  tea,  coffee. 

(The  fruits  of  India  are 
mango,  guava,  plan- 
tains, pineapples,  mel- 
ons, gourds.  Five 
crops  of  rice  yearly 
in  some  places. 
Lower  Bengal  has 
three  harvests;  viz., 
in  May,  September, 
and  November.) 

Silks,  -wheat,  olive-oil, 
macaroni,  s  u  I p  h  u  r, 
wine,  marble,  works 
of  art. 

Silk,  tea,  rice,  copper, 
tobacco,  vegetable  wax, 
camphor. 

Silver,  hennequen,  cattle, 
sugar,  cabinet  woods, 
coffee,  vanilla,  sar- 
saparilla,  sulpJntr. 

Hay,  coal,  iron,  petro- 
leum, salt,  etc. 


Grain,  cattle,  timber, 
brandy,  mines,  cotton 
manufactures,  woollen 
manufactures,  linen 
manufactures,  flax, 
hemp. 


Rice  everywhere,  especially  in 
Bengal ;  tea  in  Assam,  high 
elevation  ;  wheat  in  the  Pun- 
jab ;  shawls  in  Cashmere; 
cabinet  woods,  etc.,  in  Nepoul 
and  Madras ;  Burmah,  rice 
and  teak ;  coffee  in  Ceylon. 


Sericulture,  wine  and  olive-oil 
raising,  in  the  north  ;  sulphur 
is  found  in  Sicily  ;  marble 
in  the  northern  part ;  Rome 
is  the  centre  of  art. 


The  silver-mines  are  in  the 
central  and  north-western 
part ;  hennequen  in  Yuca- 
tan ;  sugar  near  Vera  Cruz  ; 
woods  in  the  south. 

Hay  in  New  York;  coal  in 
Pennsylvania  ;  iron  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  petroleum  in 
Pennsylvania;  salt  in  New 
York ;  manufactured  articles 
in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey. 


LEADING  PRODUCTIONS  375 

LEADING  PRODUCTIONS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  (concluded}. 


COUNTRIES. 


PRODUCTIONS. 


LOCALITIES. 


SOUTHERN 
STATES. 


WESTERN 
STATES. 


WEST  INDIES. 
(Jamaica.) 
(Cuba.) 


Cotton,    sugar,    tobacco, 
rice,  fruits,  live-stock. 


Grain,  mining,  lumber- 
i  ng,  m  a  n  ufa  ct  u  ring. 


Sugar,  coffee,  rum,  log- 
wood, fruits. 

Sugar,  molasses,  cigars, 
rum. 


Cotton,  Alabama,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  etc. ;  sugar,  Lou- 
isiana ;  tobacco,  Kentucky 
and  Virginia  ;  rice,  Carolinas  ; 
peanuts,  V  irgi  n  ia;  zinc, 
North  Carolina;  fruits  and 
sponges,  Florida ;  live-stock, 
Texas. 

Wheat,  California  and  Illinois  ; 
corn,  Illinois  ;  barley,  Califor- 
nia ;  oats,  Illinois  ;  lead,  Wis- 
consin ;  copper,  Michigan  ; 
iron,  Missouri;  gold,  all 
through  the  Rockies  ;  wine, 
California ;  silver  in  Nevada; 
manufactured  articles  in 
Illinois  ;  lumber  in  Michigan. 


Leading  Exports  of  Leading  Countries,  1888. 
A  r ranged  according  to  -value,  in  all  cases. 


.           COUNTRIES 

EXPORTS. 

EXPORTING   TOWNS. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Woo!,  gold,   "wheat,  tin, 

Melbourne,  Sydney,  Brisbane. 

live-stock,  coal,  copper, 

preserved  meat.   (Aus- 

tralia trades  with  Great 

Britain,  United  States, 

and  France.) 

ARGENTINE 

Animal  products,  grain, 

Buenos  Ayres,  Rosario. 

REPUBLIC. 

ivool.     (18,000,000  cat- 

tle, 140,000,000  sheep, 

a  year.) 

376  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

LEADING  EXPORTS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  {continued). 


COUNTRIES. 


EXPORTING  TOWNS. 


AUSTRIA. 


BELGIUM. 


BRAZIL. 


CALIFORNIA. 


CANADA. 


CHILI. 


CHINA. 


CUBA. 


CONGO  FREE 
STATE. 


Sugar,  -wood, grain,  clock- 
work and  fancy  -wares, 
woollen  manufactures. 

Grain,  flax,  linen, 
machinery,  -woollen 
yarn,  hides,  zinc. 

Coffee,  caoutchouc, 
sugar,  hides,  cotton, 
diamonds.  (Exports, 
£20,000,000.) 

Wheat,  flour,  cotton, 
(manufactured),  gin- 
seng, wine,  preserved 
fruits. 

Timber,  flsh  from  New- 
foundland, animals, 
animal  products,  coal 
from  Nova  Scotia. 

Copper  ore,  nitrate, 
sugar,  wheat,  wool. 
(Chili  trades  with 
Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, France,  Peru.) 

Tea  (1885,  131,000,000 
Ibs.  to  England  alone), 
silk,  sugar,  straw 
braid,  hides,  cotton, 
fire-crackers.  (China 
exports  to  Great  Britain, 
United  States,  Europe.) 

Sugar,  tobacco,  tropical 
fruits,  mahogany, 
"Jamaica  rum"  cof- 
fee, sponges. 

Ivory,  caoutchouc,  ebony, 
palm-mits,  wax, gums, 
sugar.  (Twenty-five 
steamers  a  month  now 
reach  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo.) 


Trieste. 


Antwerp. 


Rio  Janeiro,  Bahia,  Pernam- 
buco,  Para. 


Montreal,    Toronto,    Quebec, 
Halifax,  Winnipeg. 


Valparaiso. 


Canton,  Hong  Kong,  Shang- 
hai. 


Havana,  Matanzas,  Kingston, 
Bahamas. 


Borna    (Vivi),    St.    Paul    de 
Loanda. 


LEADING  EXPORTS  377 

LEADING  EXPORTS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  (continued). 


COUNTRIES. 


EXPORTING   TOWNS. 


EASTERN 
STATES. 


EGYPT. 


FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


GREAT 

BRITAIN. 
HOLLAND. 

INDIA. 


Ma n ufacl u i ~cd  goods, 
lime,  lumber,  fish, 
marble,  slate,  granite. 

Cotton,  cotton-seed,  beans 
( 1 77,000,000  Ibs.  ex- 
ported in  1885,  five- 
sevenths  of  all  the 
exports),  -wheat,  sit  gar. 
(Trades  with  Great 
Britain  (V2),  Turkey, 
France.) 

IVoollen  manufactures, 
wine,  silk,  dairy  prod- 
uce, brandy,  sugar, 
leather.  (France 
exports  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, Belgium,  Germany, 
United  States, Switzer- 
land.) 

Woollen  manufactures, 
sugar,  silk  manufac- 
ttires,  animals,  iron, 
leather  •manufactures. 
(Germany  exports  to 
Great  Britain,  Austro- 
Hungary,  France, 
Holland.) 

Given  in  detail  on  p.  383. 

Drugs,  butter,  iron, 
sugar. 

Cereals,  cotton,  seeds, 
opium,  jute,  tea,  rice, 
wool,  indigo.  (India 
exports  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, China,  France, 
Italy,  United  States.) 


Boston,  Providence,  Portland, 
Gloucester. 

Alexandria. 


Marseilles,  Havre,  Bordeaux. 


Hamburg,  Bremen,   Dantzic, 
(grain). 


Amsterdam,  Rotterdam. 

Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras, 
Malabar  coast,  Coromandel 
coast,  Pondicherry,  Ran- 
goon. 


37$  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

LEADING  EXPORTS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  (continued}. 


EXPORTING   TOWNS. 


ITALY. 


JAPAN. 


MEXICO. 


iflDDLE 

STATES. 


Silk,  ^vine,  olive-oil,  eggs, 
oranges,  coral,  hemp 
and  flax,  sulplntr. 
(Italy  exports  to 
France,  Switzerland, 
Austria,  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  United 

-  States.  Exported 
three  times  as  much 
silk  as  Japan.) 

Silk,  tea,  rice,  cuttle-fish, 
copper,  camphor,  coal. 
(Japan  exports  to 
United  States,  France, 
China,  Great  Britain.) 

Silver,  henne  q  u e  n, 
woods,  coffee,  hides  and 
skins,  vanilla,  tobacco, 
s  ug  a  r,  caoutchouc, 
honey,  deans,  orchil, 
copper,  sarsaparilla. 
(Mexico  trades  with 
United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France.) 

(Hennequen  is  exported 
from  Merida,  Yucatan, 
silver  bullion  from 
Paso,  and  coffee  and 
goat-skins  from  Vera 
Cruz.) 

Manufactured  goods, 
flour,  provisions,  cot- 
ton (raw),  coal,  petro- 
leii  m,  agricidtural 
implements. 


Genoa,    Leghorn,     Messina, 
Palermo. 


Yokohama. 


Vera   Cruz,  Merida,  Paso  del 
Norte,  Mazatlan,  Acapulco. 


New      York, 
Buffalo. 


Philadelphia, 


LEADING    EXPORTS  379 

LEADING  EXPORTS  OF  LEADING  COUNTRIES,  1888  {concluded'). 


EXPORTING  TOWNS. 


RUSSIA. 


SOUTHERN 
STATES. 


WESTERN 

STATES. 
UNITED 
STATES. 


Corn, flax,  wood,  linseed, 
hemp,  animals.  (Rus- 
sia exports  to  Great 
Britain,  Germany, 
France,  Austria,.  Hol- 
land.) 

Cotton  from  Alabama 
and  Mississippi,  sugar 
from  Louisiana,  rice 
from  North  and  South 
Carolino,  tobacco  from 
Kentucky,  fruits  from 
Florida.  (United 
States  exports  to  Great 
Britain,  German  y, 
France,  Canada,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Cuba.) 

Grain,  lumber,  iron, 
copper. 

Cotton,  gold  and  silver, 
breadstuffs,  mineral 
oil,  bacon  and  hams, 
lard,  animals,  tobacco, 
wood. 


Odessa. 


New      Orleans,       Savannah, 
Charleston,  Richmond. 


Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Minne- 
apolis. 

New  York,  New  Orleans, 
Boston,  San  Francisco, 
Philadelphia. 


Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Correct  the  textbook  by  these  tables,  explaining 
to  the  children  that  these  facts  are  arranged  according  to  value,  from  the  most  recent 
statistics. 

Let  the  children  find  the  difference  between  the  productions  and  the  exports  of 
countries.  Are  the  imports  of  one  country  the  productions  of  another  ?  Let  the 
children  have  the  pleasure  of  hunting  for  illustrations. 

By  what  means,  under  what  flag,  are  the  productions  or  exports  of  one  country  carried 
to  another?  eg,,  England  and  United  States.  These  statistical  tables  are  only  so 
much  MATERIAL  with  which  to  build  a  beautiful  commercial  structure,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  architect,  —  the  teacher. 


38o 


METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


Leading  Imports  of  Different  Countries,  1888. 
Arranged  according  to  value. 


COUNTRIES. 


ARGENTINE 

REPUBLIC. 

AUSTRALIA. 


AUSTRIA. 
BELGIUM. 
BRAZIL. 
CALIFORNIA. 

CANADA. 

CHILI. 
CHINA. 


EASTERN 
STATES. 
EGYPT. 


FRANCE. 


Textiles,  coal,  machine- 
ry. 

Linen  and  silk  goods, 
woollen  goods  and 
•wool,  sugar,  iron  and 
steel,  hard-ware,  tea, 
beer  and  ale,  books, 
machinery. 

Cottqii,  ivool,  grain,  cof- 
fee, tobacco,  hides. 

Grain,  wool,  hides,  an- 
imals, seeds. 

Textiles,  iron,  coal, 
machinery. 

Sugar,  silk  (raw  and 
manufactured),  coffee, 
tin,  rice,  wool  (man- 
ufactured). 

Woollen  manufactures, 
coal,  cotton,  sugar, 
grain  and  flour,  tea, 
railroad-iron. 

Textiles,  iron,  machine- 
ry. 

Opium  (from  Benares, 
Malwha,  and  Patna,) 
textiles,  metals,  woollen 
manufactures. 

Textiles,  sugar,  tea,  cof- 
fee,  soft  coal. 

Cotton  •manufactures, 
woollen  manufactures, 
coal,  provisions,  ma- 
chinery and  iron. 

Grain,  wine,  wool,  silk, 
timber,  hides,  cotton, 
coal,  coffee,  machinery. 


England,  United  States. 
England. 


Great  Britain,  United  States. 

Sandwich      Islands,      China, 
Brazil,  Japan,  Java. 


United  States,  Great  Britain. 


Great  Britain,  Germany,  Peru. 


England,      France,      Cuba, 

China,  Brazil. 
England. 


England,     United     States, 
South  America,  Russia. 


LEADING  IMPORTS  381 

LEADING  IMPORTS  OF  DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES,  1888  (concluded). 


GERMANY. 


GREAT 

BRITAIN. 
HAMBURG. 


HOLLAND. 
INDIA. 

ITALY. 
JAPAN. 

MEXICO. 
RUSSIA. 


UNITED 
STATES. 


Grain  and  flour,  wool, 
raw  cotton,  coffee,  to- 
bacco, raw  silk,  hides, 
wine,  coal,  iron,  ma- 
chinery. 

Imports  given  in  detail 
on  p.  383. 

Sugar,  woollen  man- 
ufactures, coffee,  cotton 
manufactures,  cattle, 
wool. 

Drugs,  grain,  iron, 
coffee,  sugar. 

Cotton  manufactures, 
copper,  railway  mate- 
rial, iron,  sugar,  pro- 
visions, woollen  goods, 
coal. 

Cotton, grain,  coal,  hides, 
machinery,  silk,  sugar, 
wool,  iron,  Jish,  tex- 
tiles, timber. 

Sugar,  woollen  man- 
ttfactitres,  cotton  man- 
ufactures, mineral  oil, 
iron,  textiles. 

Textiles,  iron,  machine- 
ry. 

Coal,  cotton,  tea,  wool, 
machinery,  wine,  tex- 
tiles. 

Sugar,  textiles,  coffee, 
silk  m  1 1  n  ufa  ctures, 
hides,  linen  manufac- 
tures, tin,  iron,  india 
rubber. 


England,  United  States. 


England. 


England,      France,      United 
States,  Austria. 


United  States,  England. 


United  States,  England. 

England,     United     States, 
China,  France. 

England,  Spain. 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Exports    of    Great   Britain,  taken    from    Parliament    Reports   for    1885. 
Countries  to  wkick  exported  named  according  to  value,  the  largest  first. 


ARTICLES. 


COUNTRIES. 


BEER  AND  ALE. 

BOOKS. 

COAL. 


COPPER. 

COTTON      (twist      and 

yarn.) 
COTTON  (manufactures). 


LACE. 

EARTHERN  WARE  AND 
CHINA. 

HARDWARE  AND  CUT- 
LERY. 

IRON  (pig). 

IRON  (rails). 

LEATHER. 
MACHINERY. 

SILK. 

WOOLLEN  MANUFAC- 
TURES. 


Australia,  United  States,  Egypt,  Africa. 
Australia,  United  States,  India,  France. 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  Sweden,  Russia,  Egypt, 

Spain,    Denmark,    Malta,    Brazil,    India,    etc. 

($50,000,000  in  1885.) 
India,  France,  Germany,  Holland. 
India,  Germany,  France,  Turkey,  Belgium,  Italy. 

India,  China,  Turkey,  Brazil,  Egypt,  United 
States,  France,  etc.  ($150,000,000  in  1885. 
Most  valuable  export.) 

United  States,  Germany,  Belgium. 

United  States,  Australia. 

Australia,  United- States,  and  Germany. 

Germany,  Holland,  United  States,  Russia. 
India,  Australia,   Canada,    Argentine    Republic, 

Egypt. 

Germany,  Belgium,  United  States. 
India,  Australia,  Italy,  United  States,  Argentine 

Republic. 
United  States. 
United  States,  France,  China,  Canada,  Belgium, 

Italy. 


Imports  of  Great  Britain. 

The  leading  imports  of  this,  the  greatest  commercial  country  in  the  world,  and  the 
countries  from  which  the  same  are  brought,  are  given  below.  The  countries  are 
arranged  in  order  of  amount  in  value,  the  largest  always  being  placed^r^.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  Great  Britain  exports  a  great  deal  of  these  commodities  to  the 
various  countries  with  which  she  trades. 

[Directions  to  the  teacher.  —  The  United  States  leads  in  how  many  cases? 
Let  the  teacher  put  on  the  board  such  of  these  as  she  thinks  wise  to  teach,  and 
interest  the  children  in  these  selected  cases  by  arousing  the  imagination  through  a  few 
questions. 

The  following  items  in  reference  to  England's  imports  are  taken  from  Trade, 
Navigation,  and  Shipping  Annual  Statement,  presented  to  Parliament,  for  1885,  No.  64, 
1886,  and  received  in  the  Boston  Public  Library,  1887.] 


BRITISH    IMPORTS 


383 


Leading  Imports  of  Great  Britain. 

Countries   named  according  to   value. 


ARTICLES   IMPORTED. 


ANIMALS. 

BACON  AND  HAMS. 

BEEF. 

BOOKS. 

BRANDY. 

BRIMSTONE. 

BUTTER. 

CAOUTCHOUC. 

CAOUTCHOUC  MAN- 
UFACTURES. 
CIGARS. 
COCHINEAL, 
COCOA. 
COFFEE. 
COPPER. 

CORN. 

COTTON  (rawj. 
COTTON  (manufactures). 
CUTCH  AND  GAMBIA 

(dyes). 

DYES  (aniline). 
EGGS. 
FEATHERS. 
FISH. 
FLAX. 

FRUIT  (apples). 
FRUIT  (oranges). 
GUTTAPERCHA. 
HEMP. 

HIDES. 

INDIGO. 
IRON  (ore). 
IRON  (bar). 


United  States,  Canada,  Denmark,  Holland, 
Germany. 

United  States,  Germany. 

United  States,  Canada,  Australia. 

France,  Holland,  United  States. 

France. 

Italy. 

Holland,  France. 

Brazil,  Portugal,  West  Africa,  Straits  Settle- 
ments, Bombay. 

Germany. 

United  States,  Cuba. 

Canary  Islands,  Mexico. 

West  Indies,  Ecuador. 

Ceylon,  Central  America,  India,  Brazil. 

Spain,  United  States,  Portugal,  Venezuela,  Cape 

of  Good  Hope,  Chili,  Italy. 
United  States,  Russia,  India,  Australia. 
United  States,  Egypt,  India. 
United  States,  Belgium. 
Straits  Settlements. 

Holland,  France. 

France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Denmark. 

South  Africa,  France,  Holland,  East  Indies. 

Canada,  United  States,  Holland,  France. 

Russia,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany. 

United  States.  Belgium,  Canada. 

Spain,  Italy,  Portugal. 

Straits  Settlements. 

Philippine  Islands,  Italy,  Russia,  Straits  Settle- 
ments, United  States. 

India,  Belgium,  Uruguay,  Brazil,  Argentine 
Republic. 

Bengal,  Madras,  Central  America. 

Spain,  Algeria. 

Sweden,  Belgium,  Holland. 


384  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

LEADING  IMPORTS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  (concluded}. 


ARTICLES   IMPORTED. 


IVORY. 

JUTE. 

LACE. 

LARD. 

LEAD. 

LEATHER. 

LINEN. 

LOGWOOD. 

MEAT. 

OLIVE-OIL. 

PETROLEUM. 

QUICKSILVER. 

RAGS. 

RICE. 

ROSIN. 

SALTPETRE. 

SILK  (raw). 

SILK  (manufactures). 

SILK  (ribbons). 

SILVER  ORE. 

SUGAR  (raw). 

TALLOW. 

TIN. 

TOBACCO. 

TOBACCO  (cigars). 

WINE. 

WOOD  (timber). 

WOOL  (raw) 
WOOLLEN      MANUFAC- 
TURES. 


Africa,  Holland,  India. 

Bengal,  France. 

France,  Holland,  Belgium. 

United  States,  Canada,  Denmark. 

Spain,  Germany. 

India,  United  States,  Australia,  France,  Holland. 

Belgium,  Germany. 

West  Indies,  Honduras,  Hayti,  Mexico. 

United  States,  Australia,  Belgium. 

Spain,  Italy,  Turkey,  Morocco,  Tunis. 

United  States,  Russia. 

Spain,  Italy. 

Germany,  Belgium. 

India,  Holland,  Cochin-China. 

United  States. 

India,  Germany,  Holland. 

China,  Belgium,  France. 

France,  Holland,  Belgium: 

Belgium,  France,  Holland. 

Spain,  United  States,  Australia,  Chili. 

Germany  (beet-root),  Java,  British  Guiana,  West 

Indies. 
Australia,    United   States,    Uruguay,    Argentine 

Republic 

Straits  Settlements,  Australia,  Holland,  Java. 
United  States,  Holland,  Japan. 
United  States,  Cuba. 
France,  Spain,  Holland. 
Sweden,     Russia,     Canada,     Germany,     Mexico 

(mahogany). 

Australia,  New  Zealand,  Africa,  Russia,  Turkey. 
France,  Holland,  Germany. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


THE  contemplation  of  celestial  things  will  make  a  man  both  speak 
and  think  more  sublimely  and  magnificently  .when  he  descends  to 
human  affairs.  —  Cicero. 

THE  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God  ;  and  the  firmament  sheweth 
his  handy  work.  —  Psalm's. 

385 


BOOKS    FOR    CONSULTATION 


BALL'S  ASTRONOMY. 

BOWEN'S  ASTRONOMY  BY  OBSERVATIONS. 

CHAMPLIN'S  YOUNG  FOLKS'  ASTRONOMY. 

CROCKER'S  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

FELLOWES'S  ASTRONOMY  FOR  BEGINNERS. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  READERS  (first  and  second  volumes), 

GIBERNE'S  AMONG  THE  STARS. 

JACKSON'S  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

LANGLEY'S  NEW  ASTRONOMY. 

LOCKYER'S  ASTRONOMY.     (Primer.) 

MOORE'S  OVERHEAD. 

PROCTOR'S  VARIOUS  BOOKS  ON  ASTRONOMY. 

SHARPLESS   AND  PHILIPS'S  ASTRONOMY. 

386 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  SUBJECT  — DIRECTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  —  FIRST  AND  SECOND 
YEARS  —  OBSERVATIONS  —  STUDY  —  READING  AND  TALKING  —  SELECTIONS  FROM 
GEOGRAPHICAL  READERS  —  A  SONG  OF  THE  DIRECTIONS  —  THIRD  AND  FOURTH 
YEARS  OF  STUDY  —  OBSERVATION  OF  THE  SUN,  EARTH,  AND  MOON — EXPERIMENTS 

—  STUDY    FORM    OF    EARTH,    SIZE    OF    SUN    AND    EARTH  —  READING —  FIFTH     AND 
SIXTH    YEARS  —  OBSERVATIONS    OF    VERTICAL    STICK    AT  NOON,   POSITION   OF    CON- 
STELLATIONS,   MOVEMENT  OF   STARS,   ETC.,   OF  THE   MOON,   SHAPE  OF  THE   EARTH 

—  STUDY  —  REVIEW      PREVIOUS      CLASS     WORK,     SOLAR     SYSTEM,     EARTH'S     DAILY 
MOTION,    REVOLUTION,    CHANGE    OF    SEASONS,  THE    SUN,   MOON,  TIDES  —  READING 
AND   TALKING 

IN  some  schools  very  little  mathematical  geography  is 
attempted  beyond  the  definitions  given  in  the  first  part 
of  the  geography.  These  definitions  being  placed  first  in 
the  book,  are  frequently  learned  among  the  first  lessons 
assigned  in  the  study ;  and  the  child,  neither  understanding 
them,  nor  being  interested  in  so  abstruse  a  subject,  very 
naturally  and  properly  develops  a  hatred  for  geography. 
But  no  set  of  children  ever  read  Overhead,  by  Misses  Moore 
and  Nichols,  without  being  fascinated  with  the  story,  and 
without  absorbing  every  astronomical  fact  therein  set  forth. 
The  very  youngest  children  are  delighted  to  watch  the  moon 
or  the  evening  star,  and  with  a  little  help  they  can  make 
important  observations  in  reference  to  these  heavenly  bodies. 
The  terrible  definitions  can  be  turned  into  drawing  and 
object  lessons,  much  to  the  joy  of  both  teacher  and  pupil. 

There  are  a  few  schools  where  too  much  is  expected  of 
young  children  in  this  branch  of  geography,  —  too  much  for 

387 


388  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

the  time,  too  much  for  the  age,  too  much  for  the  necessities 
of  the  case. 

In  order  to  help  teachers  make  this  often-disliked  subject 
interesting  and  attractive,  and  to  guard  against  teaching 
more  than  seems  warranted  in  the  time  allotted,  and  the  age 
of  the  pupils,  we  have  arranged  the  subject  in  this  chapter 
according  to  the  light  of  past  experience.  In  a  perfectly 
graded  school,  we  think  this  much  can  be  taught  with  profit 
and  pleasure. 

Directions  to  the  Teacher.  —  Assign  to  the  younger  children 
the  simplest  observations,  a  few  easy  and  necessary  -  definitions 
evolved  from  drawing  and  examining  objects,  and  then  read  to  them, 
or  tell  them  a  few  stories,  about  the  stars  and  the  earth.  To  the 
older  classes  the  more  difficult  work  can  be  given ;  still  reserving  to 
the  graduating  class  all  the  hardest  portions  of  the  subject. 

FIRST  AND  SECOND  YEARS  OF  STUDY 

The  teacher  should  encourage  the  children  'to  make, 
during  the  first  part  of  the  school-year,  the  following 

1.  Observations. 

1.  Notice  the   movement   of  the    sun   through   the   sky 
during  any  bright  day.     Describe  it,  telling  the  beginning, 
middle,  and  end  of  the  journey.     Where  is  the  sun  travel- 
ling during  the  night  ?     What  other  body  goes  through  the 
sky  in  a  similar  way  ? 

2.  Tell  about  the  moon's  movements. 

3.  Observe    the    stars.     Try   and    find   some   prominent 
groups,  such  as  the  Great  Dipper.     In  what  part  of  the  sky 
is  it?     Is  the  North  Star  near  the  Great  Dipper?     Try  and 


OBSERVATIONS  389 

find  it,  if  you  can.  Find  two  or  three  other  groups  or 
particular  stars. 

4.  At  the  beginning  of  school,  set  up  a  stick  four  feet 
long,  in  a  vertical  position  in  the  yard.  Notice  at  noon 
the  direction  in  which  the.  shadow  falls.  What  points  of  the 
compass  are  thus  marked  out?  North  and  south.  Notice 
the  length  of  the  shadow. 

Or  drive  a  nail  into  a  narrow  piece  of  board,  so  that  it 
will  stand  up  perpendicularly.  At  twelve  o'clock  place  the 
board  on  a  level  window-seat  in  a  south  window,  and  mark 
the  length  of  the  shadow,  with  a  pencil,  Sept.  21.  Do  the 
same  the  next  week ;  in  October ;  in  November ;  and  on 
Dec.  21,  or  22,  if  the  sun  shines  at  noon  on  those  days; 
then  again  at  various  times  subsequently ;  and  write  out  the 
results  of  the  observations.  These  should  be  shown  to 
the  teacher  for  correction  or  explanation. 

The  teacher  can  easily  teach  the  young  children  many 
simple  facts  by  little  experiments  such  as  the  following :  — 

Suspend  an  orange  or  apple  by  a  string,  and  place  pins 
in  the  orange  in  various  parts  pointing  towards  the  centre, 
and  explain  that  they  all  point  downwards  as  far  as  the 
orange  is  concerned.  Take  one  out  from  the  side,  and 
show  them  that  it  is  moving  up. 

Show  with  an  orange  the  difficulty  of  describing  where  a 
star  cut  in  the  peel  is  situated  on  the  surface  of  the  orange, 
till  poles  are  designated  by  the  axis  (a  wire) .  Then  draw 
a  circle  with  colored  crayon  around  the  orange,  equally 
distant  from  the  poles,  and  let  the  children  give  it  a  good 
name,  —  equator.  The  star  can  now  be  easily  located. 

Erom  the  direction  of  the  shadow  at  noon,  north  and 
south  are  determined ;  at  right  angles  is  east  and  west. 


39°         METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Locate  these  cardinal  points  upon  the  floor  of  the  school- 
room near  the  door,  where  every  child  must  pass  over  them 
in  coming  to  school.  Have  the  children  explain  the  direc- 
tion in  which  each  one's  front  door  faces,  the  ^direction  of 
the  various  streets,  etc. 

2.  Study. 

A  line  has  length  without  breadth  or  thickness.  Illustrate 
on  the  board  and  paper.  Learn  the  names  of  the  different 
straight  lines,  as  perpendicular,  horizontal,  vertical,  oblique, 
etc. 

Learn  the  difference  between  a  curved  and  a  straight  line. 

A  straight  line  is  the  shortest  distance  between  two  points. 

A  curved  line  changes  its  direction  at  every  point,  but  a 
straight  line  does  not  change  its  direction  at  any  point. 

Illustrate  the  difference,  by  drawing  on  the  board  or  paper. 

A  surface  has  length  and  breadth  without  thickness. 
Illustrate  by  using  a  sheet  of  paper,  the  blackboard,  the  top 
of  the  desk,  the  outside  of  the  orange,  globe,  etc. 

Show  the  difference  between  a  plane  surface  and  a  curved 
surface. 

Learn  the  difference  between  a  plane  surface  and  an 
uneven  surface.  Illustrate.  A  plane  is  a  surface  upon  any 
part  of  which  a  straight  line  may  be  drawn.  Illustrate  by 
using  the  edge  of  a  ruler  to  represent  the  straight  line, 
and  placing  this  upon  the  top  of  the  desk,  on  the  side  of 
the  room,  on  the  blackboard,  on  the  floor.  Planes  may 
be  perpendicular,  oblique,  or  horizontal ;  but  we  usually 
think  of  them  as  horizontal,  like  the  floor. 

Observe  the  difference  between  a  circle  and  a  square,  or 
a  rectangle.  Illustrate. 


FACTS  TO   LEARN  39! 

A  portion  of  a  plane  bounded  by  a  line  is  generally  called 
a  geometric  figure,  such  as  circles,  squares,  rectangles, 
triangles,  etc. 

A  circle  is  a  plane  bounded  by  a  curved  line,  every  point 
of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the 
centre.  Draw  circles  of  different  sizes,  in  different  ways. 

Learn,  draw,  and  name  the  different  parts  of  a  circle,  such 
as  circumference,  diameter,  radius,  arc,  etc. 

Learn  how  many  radii  make  a  diameter  ;  what  a  semi-circle 
is  ;  a  semi-circumference.  What  is  the  difference  between  a 
circle  and  a  circumference  ?  Learn  the  difference  between 
a  circle  and  an  oval,  or  ellipse.  Draw  an  oval. 

A  solid  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness.  Illustrate 
with  a  cube,  a  book,  etc.  Learn  the  difference  between  a 
cube  and  a  sphere.  Learn  different  parts  of  a  sphere,  as 
surface  (curved),  diameter,  radius,  centre,  etc. 

From  a  globe  learn  the  names  of  the  poles,  the  various 
circles,  such  as  equator,  other  circles  parallel,  circles  cross- 
ing these,  such  as  meridian,  or  mid-day,  circles.  The  latter 
all  pass  through  what  two  points?  Then  learn  the  names 
of  the  two  tropics  ;  the  two  Arctic  circles. 

The  form  of  the  earth  is  also  shown  by  the  globe,  and  by 
an  orange.  It  is  usually  called  spherical,  not  round.  Learn 
the  difference  between  the  two. 

Make  on  the  board  a  circle,  and  draw  the  diameter. 
Children  do  the  same.  Show  them,  by  cutting  an  apple  or 
orange  into  two  equal  parts,  how  the  circle  represents  on 
a  flat  surface  the  curved  half-surface  of  the  earth,  called  a 
hemisphere. 

Draw  circles  about  the  orange  at  the  right  places,  to 
divide  the  same  into  the  different  zones,  or  belts,  in  reference 


392  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

to  the  heat.  Draw  straight  lines  across  the  circle  on  the 
board,  to  correspond  with  these  circles.  Name  these  belts 
at  first,  (i)  the  hot  belt,  (2)  the  cool  north  belt,  (3)  the 
cool  south  belt,  (4)  the  cold  north  belt,  (5)  the  cold  south 
belt. 

3.  Reading  and  Talking. 

The  Stick  and  the  Shadow. 

During  breakfast  Harry  said  a  great  deal  about  the  grand  sunrise.  After  tbe  meal 
was  over  they  all  made  their  way  to  the  sands.  The  sun,  which  a  few  hours  before 
Harry  had  seen  rising  out  of  the  golden  ripples  in  the  east,  was  now  much  higher  in 
the  sky.  His  rays,  too,  had  grown  so  hot  that  the  people  looked  about  for  shelter. 

Harry's  mother  and  father  sat  under  the  side  of  a  boat  in  the  shade,  whilst  the 
children,  with  naked  feet,  ran  off  to  paddle  in  the  water.  And  fine  sport  they  had. 

With  her  fishing-net  his  sister  Alice  ran  after  lively  little  shrimps.  Harry  was 
busy  with  his  pretty  toy  boat. 

.But  the  sun  growing  hotter  still,  the  children  ran  off  to  the  shade  of  the  boat. 
Great  was  their  surprise  when  they  found  that  the  boat  no  longer  threw  a  shadow  to 
shelter  them.  The  fierce  rays  came  pouring  down  on  the  side  of  the  boat,  as  if  it 
would  scorch  them.  And  yet  an  hour  before  it  was  so  cool  there.  This  was  a  great 
wonder  to  the  children. 

"  Stop  with  me  a  little,"  cried  their  father.  "  I  have  a  good  lesson  to  teach  you 
about  this  great  sun  and  his  doings." 

"  Why,  the  sun  is  always  on  the  move,"  said  Harry.  "  I  wish  he  would  stand  still 
a  bit,  and  let  me  cool  myself." 

"Yes,  my  boy;  and  it  is  just  because  he  always  seems  to  move  on  that  he  is  so 
very  useful.  This  makes  him  a  good  old  time-keeper.  Let  us  watch  him.  Stand  my 
stick  upright  in  the  sand.  What  do  you  now  notice  ?  " 

"A  shadow.'"  cried  Harry.  "A  shadow  thrown  by  the  stick  on  the  yellow 
sand." 

Their  father  made  a  groove  where  the  shadow  fell,  and  with  much  care  cut  a  line 
on  the  sand  to  show  its  length.  It  was  then  eleven  o'clock.  The  children  played  an 
hour  longer,  and  came  back.  There  were  still  the  stick  and  the  shadow,  —  the  same 
stick,  but  not  the  same  shadow. 

"  Why,  father,  look  at  the  shadow,"  cried  Harry.  "  See  how  much  shorter  it  is, 
and  it  has  left  the  old  groove.  It  has  gone  more  to  the  east.  Why  can  this  be  ?  " 

"That  is  just  what  I  wished  to  hear  you  ask  about,  my  children. 

"  I  could  have  told  you  the  story  of  the  stick  and  the  shadow  before,  but  I  wished 
you  to  see  this  with  your  own  eyes. 

"  The  fact  is,  the  sun  not  only  seems  to  move  on  in  his  daily  course,  but  he  gets 
higher  and  higher  in  the  sky  for  a  certain  time.  And,  you  see,  as  he  rises  higher  he 
throws  shorter  shadows.  You  can  now  run  and  play  an  hour  longer." 


SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH  393 

At  one  o'clock  the  children  came  back.  Where  was  the  shadow  then  ?  It  had 
again  changed  its  place,  but  had  now  grown  longer,  — just  as  long  as  it  was  at  eleven. 

"  How  strange  !  "  cried  Harry.     And  it  began  to  puzzle  him. 

"  You  see,"  said  his  father,  "  at  twelve  o'clock  the  sun  stood  as  high  as  he  could  in 
the  sky.  Now  he  is  sinking  lower  and  lower. 

"  We  call  the  time  of  the  day  when  the  sun  is  at  his  highest,  mid-day ',  or  twelve 
o'clock.  The  part  of  the  heavens  in  which  he  is  then  seen  is  called  the  south.  Thus 
you  have  learnt  one  more  useful  fact, —  the  sun  is  seen  in  the  south  at  noon,  or 
twelve  o'clock. 

"  Let  us  now  go  home  to  dinner." 

L.E ARN.  —  (a)  The  sun  reaches  his  highest  point  in  the  heavens 
at  twelve  o'clock,  or  mid-day. 

(ft)  The  sun  shines  in  the  "  south  "  at  mid-day,  or  noon .  — 
Albert  Geographical  Reader. 

Size  of  the  Earth. 

"  Shall  I  tell  you  more  about  the  size  of  the  earth?  "  said  the  father. 

"  Oh,  yes!  if  you  please." 

"  Well,  since  I  have  been  a  sailor,  I  have  found,  that,  though  the  earth  seems 
large,  yet  it  is  not  such  a  very  big  body  after  all. 

"  We  can  get  about  so  quickly  that  places  that  we  once  thought  a  long  way  off 
seem  near  to  us  now.  When  I  was  a  little  boy  like  you,  it  took  more  than  a  week  to 
go  in  a  coach  from  one  end  of  this  country  to  another.  Now  we  can  go  the  same 
distance  in  half  a  day. 

"  Not  only  can  we  get  about  very  quickly  on  land,  but  on  the  sea  fast  steamboats 
can  take  us  from  one  country  to  another  nearly  as  quickly  as  a  train  could.  My 
ship  can  steam  about  twenty  miles  an  hour,  and  I  can  go  to  America  in  about  seven 
days  and  a  half. 

"  The  first  man  who  sailed  round  the  world  took  more  than  two  years.  How 
long  was  I  gone  on  the  voyage  before  this  ?  " 

"  I  know,"  said  the  boy.  "  When  you  sailed,  it  wanted  six  months  to  my  birth- 
day ;  and  you  said  you  would  try  and  get  back  in  time  for  some  cake,  and  that  you 
would  bring  me  a  parrot  as  a  birthday  gift." 

"And  I  reached  home  a  week  before.  —  Hark !  what  does  Polly  say?  'Go 
ahead!  Port  your  helm!  Easy!  Stop  her!  '  —  And  yet  I  had  been  quite  round  the 
world,  and  some  ships  can  do  the  voyage  in  less  time  than  that. 

"  And  there  is  something  else  that  makes  me  feel  that  the  earth  is  not  so  very 
large.  When  I  was  just  half-way  round  the  world,  I  wanted  to  speak  to  those  who 
own  the  ship  at  home.  So  I  sent  a  message  to  them  after  dinner,  and  I  had  an  answer 
back  again  by  the  next  morning.  Do  you  know  how  I  spoke  to  them  ?  " 

"  You  must  have  sent  a  telegram." 

"  That  is  just  what  I  did;  and  it  made  me  feel,  that,  after  all,  the  world  is  not 
so  very  big."  —  Geographical  Reader. 


394  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Mariner's  Compass. 

"  Put  on  your  hats  and  jackets,  children.  Let  us  talk  to  the  sailors,  and  see  the 
ships." 

When  they  reached  the  harbor,  their  father  took  them  over  a  vessel,  and  showed 
them  the  compass. 

"  Oh !  what  a  funny  clock !  "  cried  Alice.     "  What  a  pretty  clean  face  it  has !  " 

"  It  is  not  a  clock  at  all,"  said  her  father.  "  We  call  it  a  compass.  By  means  of 
this,  sailors  can  find  their  way  about  the  sea  better  than  most  landsmen  can  travel 
through  the  country.  So  it  is  known  as  the  sailor's  or  mariner's  compass. 

"  The  compass  has  only  one  hand,  called  the  needle.  This  is  made  of  steel,  and  it 
is  a  magnet." 

"A  magnet,  father!"  said  Harry.  "  The  one  you  gave  me  was  like  a  horse- 
shoe." 

"  All  magnets  are  not  made  like  horseshoes.  If  a  magnet  is  made  straight  and  flat, 
and  hung  up  on  a  point  in  the  middle,  one  end  of  it  will  always  turn  to  the  north,  do 
what  you  will  with  it. 

"On  the  card  below  the  needle  there  are  as  many  as  thirty-two  points.  Of 
course,  the  chief  of  these  are  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  So  sailors  never  care 
where  they  are:  they  neither  want  sun  nor  star  to  guide  them." 

"  How  strange!  "  said  Alice.  "  What  makes  the  needle  turn  always  to  the 
north?" 

"  That,  my  child,  I  cannot  tell.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  wonders.  We  only 
know  that  it  does  so,  and  that  the  north  is  the  greatest  of  all  magnets." 

The  children  went  back  in  a  great  puzzle. 

Every  ship  carries  at  lea*  one  compass,  by  which  the  sailors  see  in  which  direction 
they  are  going,  and  which  way  they  must  steer,  the  vessel. 

When  the  north  is  found,  either  by  the  help  of  the  north  star  or  the  compass,  it  is 
easy  to  find  out  the  other  points  of  direction. 

With  your  face  to  the  north,  your  back  is  to  the  south,  the  east  is  on  your  right 
hand,  and  the  west  is  on  your  left  hand.  —  First  Geographical  Reader. 

A  Song  of  the  Directions. 

"  I'm  off  to  the  SOUTH,"  sang  the  sun  to  the  moon, 

As  he  bade  her  good-by  at  the  door. 
"  You  know  I  must  shine  there  exactly  at  noon, 

Or  the  world  would  trust  me  no  more." 

"Oh,  stay,  dearest  spouse!  "  sighed  the  moon  to  the  sun: 

"  Ere  you  go,  love,  partake  of  this  feast. 
'Tis  a  very  long  journey  you  have  now  to  run, 

For  at  morning  you  start  from  the  EAST.'* 


POEMS  — OBSERVATIONS  395 

"  'Tis  true,  fairest  moon.     You're  both  lovely  and  kind, 

But  your  thoughtfulness  pleases  me  best. 
How  good  it  was  of  you  my  breakfast  to  mind, 

For  at  evening  I'm  called  to  the  WEST." 

"  I'm  so  glad,"  said  the  moon,  as  his  breakfast  he  ate, 

"  That  you   ne'er  have  to  shine  from  the  NORTH, 
For  to  melt  all  the  snow  there  would  keep  you  too  late." 

Here  he  kissed  her,  and  took  his  way  forth. 

"  Be  as  quick  as  you  can,"  through  her  tears  sobbed  the  moon 

(Those  tears  are  the  dewdrops  of  morn). 
"  Yes,  yes!  "  cried  the  sun,  "  I'll  come  back  to  thee  soon; 

I'd  ne'er  leave  my  own  true  love  forlorn. 

"  And  when  my  work's  done,  my  steps  I'll  retrace, 

So  weary  not  while  I'm  away; 
For  at  night  I  shall  shine  on  thy  beautiful  face, 

Though  the  cold  world  needs  me  by  day." 

Philips  s  Geographical  Reader. 

The  North  Star. 

Fixed  in  the  north  shines  the  bright  Pole  Star, 

Guiding  the  sailor's  way  from  afar; 

Round  and  round  it  all  other  stars  go, 

But  the  Pointers  always  the  pole's  place  show. 

THE   THIRD  AND  FOURTH  TEARS  OF  STUDY       * 
1.  Observation. 

The  pupils  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  should  now 
observe  with  care  the  exact  position  of  the  sun  in  the 
morning,  at  noon,  and  at  sunset,  and  report  to  the  teacher. 
Then  the  next  day,  with  a  little  help  from  the  teacher,  mark 
these  positions  carefully,  so  they  can  be  compared  after- 
wards if  changes  take  place.  Take  these  observations 
once  a  week ;  report  changes.  Sept.  2 1  observe  carefully 
the  path  of  the  sun  through  the  heavens,  for  the  sun  on 
that  day  moves  over  the  equator  on  what  is  called  the 


396  METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

celestial  equator.  Draw  a  line,  if  possible,  in  the  yard, 
between  the  points  of  rising  and  setting  sun.  Before 
noon  drive  a  stake  in  this  line,  and  at  noon  —  true 
time,  not  standard  time  —  observe  the  direction  of  the 
shadow  cast  by  the  stake.  See  if  the  first  line  and  this 
shadow-line  are  at  right  angles.  Prolong  the  shadow-line 
across  the  first  line,  and  test  with  compass  to  find  directions 
of  the  four  cardinal  points. 

Which  one  of  these  lines  indicates  the  mid-day  circle? 
Does  meridian  mean  mid-day  circle?  (Medidian  changed, 
for  ease  in  pronunciation,  to  meridian,  means  middle  day.) 
Find  out  what  streets  or  roads  run  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  meridians  ;  what  ones  cross  them  at  right  angles, 
and  therefore  run  in  the  direction  of  the  parallels.  In  going 
home,  do  you  travel  on  a  parallel,  or  a  meridian,  or  neither? 

Take  an  orange  or  an  apple,  and  divide  the  sphere  into 
two  equal  parts,  by  a  line  passing  around  it,  making  a  large 
circle.  Call  this  line  an  equator.  Draw  a  small  circle 
around  parallel  to  the  equator,  on  each  side,  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  distant.  This  encloses  a  belt,  or  zone.  Draw 
another  circle  round,  one-third  of  an  inch  distant  from  each 
of  the  last  circles.  Two  belts,  or  zones,  will  be  thus  pro- 
duced, and  two  circular  belts,  one  at  each  pole,  or  extrem- 
ity of  the  axis.  Give  these  zones  appropriate  names. 

Then  let  the  children  find,  on  the  globe,  the  different 
parallels.  Show  them  that  all  these  are  circles,  but  not 
circles  of  the  same  size. 

Show  how  these  circles  help  to  locate  places,  especially 
on  the  great  oceans,  north  or  south  of  the  equator.  Explain 
.  the  meaning  of  "  40th  parallel." 

Ask  the  children  if  it  is  as  important  to  have  lines,  or 


LONGITUDE  397 

circles,  to  help  locate  places  in  reference  to  east  or  west? 
If  it  is,  we  need  a  line  to  count  from.  Once  every  nation 
counted  from  its  own  national  capital ;  but  every  year  more 
and  more  people  are  using  Greenwich,  near  London,  as  the 
first  line,  or  the  line  from  which  so  many  people  reckon 
distance,  east  or  west,  usually  called  the  first  meridian. 

Draw  lines  on  the  orange,  or  slate  globe,  to  show  these 
lines  going  north  and  south  round  the  globe.  They  all  pass 
through  the  poles.  Ask  the  children  if  they  are  parallel. 

Let  them  see  them  on  the  globe.  Let  them  open  their 
book  to  the  map,  and  find  the  same  lines. 

These  lines,  running  north  and  south,  are  called  meridians, 
—  mid-day  lines,  —  because  all  the  places  along  one  of  these 
lines  have  mid-day  at  the  same  time. 

Explain,  that,  for  convenience,  each  circle  is  divided  into 
three  hundred  and  sixty  equal  parts ;  and  each  part  is  called 
a  degree.  Therefore  the  distance  round  the  earth  is 
called  360°;  one-half  round  would  be  180°;  one-fourth 
way  round,  90°. 

Show  the  pupils  that  Springfield,  111.,  is  just  one-fourth  of 
the  distance  round  the  earth  from  London.  Hence  it  is 
called  90°  west  of  London. 

The  Feejee  Islands,  Gulf  of  Anadir,  Eastern  Siberia,  or 
New  Zealand,  are  each  about  half-way  round  the  world, 
or  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth  from  London.  Hence 
they  are  said  to  be  nearly  180°  west  of  London. 

Now  explain :  longitude,  the  distance  measured  east  or 
west  from  any  given  meridian,  as  the  one  running  through 
Greenwich ;  latitude,  the  distance  measured  north  or  south 
from  the  equator. 


398  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Moon. 

Locate  the  position  of  the  new  moon  in  September,  and 
report  to  the  teacher  where  and  when  observed.  Illustrate 
by  drawing.  Keep  the  drawing.  In  a  few  evenings  look  at 
moon  again,  and  notice  change  in  appearance.  Draw  on 
paper  the  new  appearance. 

In  seven  days  from  first  observation  make  another  at 
sunset.  If  the  moon  is  overhead  see  if  that  half  towards 
the  observer  is  illumined.  Draw  again. 

About  fifteen  days  from  new  moon  make  another  observa- 
tion, and  report  to  teacher  appearance,  where  in  sky,  and 
when  seen.  Draw.  Learn  good  names  for  these  changes, 
called  phases  of  the  moon. 

Experiment. 

Show  the  alternation  of  day  and  night,  by  some  such 
experiment  as  the  following :  — 

On  a  dark  day,  or  near  close  of  afternoon  session  in  winter 
months,  have  a  small  kerosene-lamp  (with  a  tin  reflector  if 
convenient,  although  not  necessary  if  room  is  pretty  dark), 
and  a  small  hand-globe. 

Show  that  only  one-half  is  illumined  at  one  time.  Then, 
by  rotation,  show  that  every  part  may  become  illumined 
alternately.  Place  the  lamp  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  room, 
and  let  it  represent  the  rising  sun.  Ask  the  children  to 
think  of  the  sun  as  standing  still,  just  as  the  lamp  is, 
and  the  earth  turning  as  the  globe  is  turned.  Fasten  a 
small  piece  of  paper  on  the  globe  to  represent  where  you 
live,  and  place  or  hold  the  globe  so  the  north  pole  will 
point  towards  the  north,  and  then  turn  from  west  to  east. 


RAYS  OF   LIGHT 


399 


The  children  will  be  able  to  see  the  white  paper  pass  into 
the  light,  —  sunrise  ;  come  directly  before  the  lamp,  — 
noon ;  and  pass  into  the  dark  half,  —  sunset. 

Draw  on  the  board  a  circle  to  represent  the  earth,  with  a 
radius  of  twelve  inches  or  more.  Outside  of  this  draw 
a  larger  circle,  with  a  radius  three  inches  longer,  to  repre- 
sent the  atmosphere  about  the  earth.  Let  a  wide  black- 


Fig.  65.  —  Diagram,  showing  the  Difference  be'tween  Perpen- 
dicular and  Sloping  Rays  of  Light  and  Heat. 

board  ruler  represent  rays  of  light,  or,  better,  a  solid  oblong. 
Place  this  on  the  board  above  the  circles,  to  represent 
vertical  rays,  and  draw  the  lines  Ai  and  B2,  Fig.  65. 

Then  incline  the  ruler  at  various  angles,  and  draw  such 
lines  as  A3,  €5,  and  A4,  D6.  Then  show  the  children 
that  the  distance  AD  is  almost  twice  AB ;  hence  the  sloping 
rays  cover  much  more  ground,  and  are  not  so  hot  in  conse- 
quence. Then  the  sloping  rays  near  morning  and  sunset 


400  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

pass  through  more  masses  of  air,  and  consequently  lose  a 
part  of  the  heating  and  lighting  power. 

The  effect  of  the  difference  in  the  heating-power  of 
perpendicular  and  oblique  rays  is  shown  whenever  persons 
travel  north  from  the  south.  As  the  person  travels  farther 
north,  the  sun  seems  to  travel  farther  south ;  and  the 
oBliquity  of  his  rays  increases,  and  their  heating-power 
consequently  decreases.  And  this  is  always  the  result 
noticed. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  notice  how  many  sides  of  a  ball  they 
can  see  at  once.  How  much  of  the  globe  can  be  illumined 
at  once  by  a  lamp  in  a  darkened  room  ?  In  order  that  a 
person  may  see  the  other  side  of  a  ball  without  changing 
his  position,  the  ball  must  be •• — ?  [Pupils,  tell.] 

Experiment,  and  find  out  how  to  illumine  the  other  side 
of  the  globe. 

2.    Study. 

The  Form  of  the  Earth.  —  Ancients  believe  the  earth  was 
flat,  —  a  great  circular  plain. 

Now  believed  to  be  nearly  spherical,  because 

(a)  Men  like  Magellan,   Blake,   and  Cook  have  sailed 
around  it ; 

(b)  Ships  seen  on  the  ocean  show  the  sails  first,  and  hull 
afterwards  ; 

(/)  Sailors  approaching  land  see  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  the  tops  of  the  high  buildings,  first. 

What  would  a  sailor  do  who  wanted  to  have  the  last  look 
at  the  land  he  was  leaving?  Climb  up  the  rigging. 

When  farmers  in  Dakota  are  travelling  in  the  valley  of  the 
Red  River  of  the  North,  they  see  first  the  tops  of  trees  and 
houses  in  the  distance,  then  the  middle  part  of  the  object, 


FORM   AND   SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH  401 

and  by  and  by,  as  they  approach  nearer,  the  base  of  the 
house,  the  trunk  of  the  tree ;  which  shows  how  very  level 
this  section  is,  formed  at  the  bottom  of  a  great  inland  lake 
in  glacier  periods,  and  it  also  proves  the  rotundity  of  the 
earth. 

Size  of  the  Earth.  —  Learn  the  diameter,  about  eight 
thousand  miles ;  then  the  circumference,  three  and  one-third 
times  that,  or  about  twenty-five  thousand  miles. 

Find  how  long  an  express-train,  going  at  the  rate  of  forty 
miles  an  hour,  would  require  to  go  round  the  earth  •  at  the 
equator,  or  on  a  meridian.  It  would  take  a  steamship  about 
four  months. 

Review  the  circles  learned  in  the  previous  year. 

What  is  meant  by  the  centre  of  a  circle  ?  the  plane  of  a 
circle?  Cut  an  apple  to  illustrate.  Learn  what  circles  are 
great  circles,  and  what  small  circles. 

All  these  circles  are  divided  into  three  hundred  and  sixty 
parts,  called  degrees.  Angles  are  thus  measured.  When  we 
speak  of  its  being  ninety  degrees  from  the  equator  to  the 
pole,  we  mean  it  is  one-fourth  of  three  hundred  and  sixty 
degrees,  or  one-fourth  of  the  way  round  the  earth. 

Learn  the  meaning  of  latitude  and  longitude,  as  defined 
in  any  geography.  What  use  for  these  terms? 

Illustrate  the  use  of  the  terms,  on  the  globe.  Draw  maps, 
and  mark  off  the  latitude  and  the  longitude.  Reckon  the 
longitude  from  Greenwich. 

From  what  place  do  we  reckon  latitude?  How  many 
degrees  of  each  can  a  place  have  ? 


402  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Sun  and  Earth. 

The  moon  is  a  great  distance  from  the  earth.  But  if  we 
should  hollow  out  the  sun,  and  place  the  earth  in  the  centre, 
there  would  be  room  enough  for  the  moon  to  go  on  moving 
in  her  present  orbit  at  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
miles  from  the  earth,  —  all  within  the  globe  of  the  sun 
itself. 

Draw  a  circle  on  the  board,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
let  it  represent  the  earth.  Draw  another,  fifty-four  inches  in 
diameter  :  the  latter  will  represent  the  size  of  the  sun. 

The  earth's  diameter  is  eight  thousand  miles ;  that  of  the 
sun,  eight  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  miles. 

The  sun  is  so  far  away  from  the  earth,  that,  if  an  express 
train  had  started  when  the  "  Mayflower"  sailed  to  this  country 
with  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  it  would  not  yet  have  reached  us, 
although  travelling  day  and  night.  The  fare  for  such  a 
journey,  at  the  regular  rates,  would  be  nearly  two  million 
dollars. 

Learn  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  rotation."  Illustrate  with 
top,  wheel,  and  globe.  Learn  where  the  axis  and  the  poles 
are.  How  long  does  it  take  the  earth  to  rotate,  or  spin, 
once  ? 

How  many  times  does  it  rotate  in  a  year  like  1889?  1888? 

The  sun  stands  still,  and  the  earth's  rotation  produces 
day  and  night.  Thus  every  place  comes  in  sight  of  the 
sun,  making  sunrise  for  that  place ;  every  place  arrives 
opposite  the  sun,  making  mid-day ;  every  place  loses  sight 
of  the  sun,  making  sunset. 


SHAPE  OF  THE  EARTH  403 


Read  to  the  Class 

at  the  first  appropriate  opportunity,  some  such  selection  as 


the  following :  — 


Shape  of  the  Earth. 


Though  the  boys  had  very  much  enjoyed  their  holiday  trip  to  the  seaside,  as  well 
as  their  extra  walks  in  the  fields  and  woods,  yet  they  were  glad  to  commence  afresh 
their  lessons  in  the  schoolroom,  and  to  learn  more  about  the  great  world  on  which  we 
live. 

Their  father  was  pleased  that  what  they  had  seen  fitted  them  the  better  to  receive 
some  further  lessons  which  he  proposed  to  give  them. 

The  boys  had  told  Mr.  Goodman  of  their  voyage  round  the  lake,  and  had  shown 
him  their  chart  And  on  the  next  day,  they' were  in  the  schoolroom  at  an  early  hour. 

"  Looking  over  my  library  yesterday,"  said  the  father,  "  I  found  a  book  called 
A  Voyage  Round  the  World,  which  led  me  to  compare  it  with  your  voyage  round 
the  lake.  You  have  heard,  no  doubt,  that  the  world  is  round ;  not  flat  as  it  seems  to 
us,  but  round  and  solid  like  a  ball.  It  is  therefore  called  a  spJiere  or  globe. 

"  I  will  try  to  make  this  clear,"  added  Mr.  Goodman,  "  if  Fred  will  allow  us  the 
use  of  his  large  India-rubber  air-ball  for  a  few  minutes." 

Master  Fred  lost  no  time  in  fetching  the  ball,  and  placing  it  on  the  schoolroom 
table  It  had  not  been  on  the  table  a  minute  before  a  blue-bottle  fly  settled  on  the 
ball,  and  moved  about  as  though  he  were  out  on  a  journey  of  pleasure. 

"  See,"  said  Mr.  Goodman,  "  there  is  a  fly  creeping  on  the  ball,  and  marching 
forward  as  straight  as  it  can:  if  it  keeps  on  the  path  it  has  chosen,  it  will  come  to  the 
same  place  again." 

"  I  wonder,"  said  Master  Fred,  "  if  the  fly  knows  that  the  ball  is  round  ?  " 

"  Perhaps  not,"  replied  the  father;  "  but  whether  it  knows  the  shape  of  the  ball,  or 
not,  we  are  quite  sure  that  it  cannot  see  all  over  the  globe  at  once.  It  has  wonderful 
eyes,  but  still  it  is  not  able  to  see  over  the  curve,  and  to  know  what  is  on  the  other 
side  of  the  ball;  it  must  go  round  to  find  that  out.  It  can  see  so  little  of  the  ball  at 
once,  that,  if  there  were  another  fly  a  few  inches  from  this  one,  they  could  not  see  one 
another,  because  neither  of  them  could  see  far  over  a  curve. 

"  Now,  we  are  just  like  flies,  only  very  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  size  on 
the  surface  of  the  great  globe  called  the  earth.  On  the  largest  plain,  or  even  on  the 
wide  ocean,  we  cannot  see  very  far,  because  both  land  and  water  are  bent  round  like 
the  surface  of  the  ball. 

"  Just  as  two  flies,  a  few  inches  apart  on  the  football,  are  unable  to  see  each  other, 
so  we,  who  are  larger,  and  placed  on  a  much  greater  globe,  cannot  see  people  who  are 
a  few  miles  away,  even  on  the  sea,  where  there  are  no  houses  nor  trees  nor  hills  to 
stand  in  the  way.  It  is  not  that  our  eyes  are  weak,  but  because  they  are  not  made 
to  see  round  a  corner,  or  over  a  curve. 


404  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

"Just  fancy  a  ship  sailing  in  one  direction  only,  —  say  always  going  eastward:  it 
would  at  last  come  to  the  place  from  which  it  started.  We  know  that  it  cannot  sail 
exactly  in  a  straight  line  all  round  the  world,  because  some  portions  of  land  lie  in  the 
path;  but  when  a  ship  does  sail  as  straight  as  possible,  and  turns  round  any  piece  of 
land  that  lies  in  the  way,  and  then  gets  into  the  straight  line  again,  it  comes  to  the 
place  it  started  from,  just  as  a  pencil  or  a  fly  would  in  going  round  a  ball.  This  is  one 
proof  that  the  earth  is  round  like  a  ball  or  an  orange." 

Read  to  the  class,  also,  from  Overhead,  by  Annie  Moore 
and  Laura  D.  Nichols  (published  by  D.  Lothrop  &  Co., 
Boston  ;  price  $1.25),  the  following  selections  :  — 

"  Planets  vs.  Chickens  " p.    39. 

"Eclipses" p.    67. 

"The  Seasons" p.    77. 

"The  Moon" p.  116. 

"The  Sun" p.  188. 

FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  YEARS  OF  .STUDY 

Observations. 

On  the  first  day  of  school  in  September  observe,  with  a 
vertical  stick,  the  length  of  the  shadow  cast  at  noon. 
Compare  this  length  with  the  length  cast  two  weeks  later, 
and  report  whether  the  shadow  is  longer  or  shorter. 

By  means  of  the  same  vertical  stick  in  the  yard,  or  in  the 
schoolroom  if  the  sun  enters,  trace  the  shadow  on  Sept.  21, 
at  exactly  twelve  o'clock,  true  time.  Draw  a  line  across  this 
shadow-line  at  right  angles,  and  observe  if  it  points  to  the 
part  of  the  horizon  where  the  sun  rises  and  sets  at  this  time 
of  the  year.  Now  mark  the  four  cardinal  points,  obtained 
by  the  direction  of  the  shadow  and  the  line  at  right  angles. 
Indicate  the  meridian  of  the  place  where  the  observation 
was  made.  •  Verify  the  same  with  the  compass. 

A  vertical  stick  always  points  to  the  zenith.  Suppose 
one  is  standing  in  the  schoolyard,  like  AB,  Fig.  66,  long 


APPARATUS  FOR  MEASURING  LATITUDE 


4°5 


enough  to  reach  above  B,  the  ground,  some  eight  feet.  At 
a  convenient  point  above  B  fasten  to  the  vertical,  with  a  nail 
or  screw,  another  stick  three  or  four*  feet  long,  so  that  it  will 
move  in  line  with  the  direction  of  the  shadow,  as  is  indicated 
in  the  figure  by  C  D.  With  the  eye  at  C,  move  the  sun- 


DlRECTiON        OF       SHADOW. 


Fig.  66.  — Diagram  showing  a  Simple  Apparatus  for  measuring 
the  Latitude  of  a  Place,  Sept.  21. 

stick  till  it  points  to  the  sun  just  at  noon  on  Sept.  21. 
Secure  the  stick  in  this  position.  Then  place  against  the 
two  sticks  a  piece  of  paper,  and  trace  the  angle  made  by 
the  two  sticks.  Draw  a  circle  about  the  vertex  of  this  angle, 
and  measure  it  as  shown  in  the  figure. 


406  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Conclusions.  —  If  there  is  no  angle  between  the  sticks, 
there  will  be  no  shadow  cast  by  the  vertical  stick ;  and  the 
schoolyard  must  be  situated  on  the  equator,  it  being  Sept. 
21  when  the  observation  was  made.  If  the  shadow  falls 
towards  the  south,  then  the  observers  niust  be  south  of  the 
equator,  perhaps  in  the  Argentine  Republic.  If  the  shadow 
falls  towards  the  north,  then  the  school  must  be  situated 
north  of  the  equator,  perhaps  in  the  United  States  or  in 
England. 

If  the  angle  is  about  twenty  degrees  between  the  two 
sticks,  and  the  sun-stick  falls  from  the  vertical  towards  the 
south,  then  the  school  is  twenty  degrees  north  of  the  equator. 
If  the  angle  is  forty  degrees,  as  in  Fig.  66,  then  the  school 
stands  in  40°  north  latitude. 

Observe  the  position  of  the  North  Star,  the  Great  Dipper, 
and  the  group  which  looks  like  a  chair  opposite  the  Great 
Dipper,  on  the  other  side  of  the  North  Star,  and  called 
Cassiopeia.  Then  draw  on  paper  the  positions  of  the  two 
groups.  If  the  observation  was  made  at  eight  P.M.,  about 
the  middle  of  September,  the  position  will  be  as  given  in 
Fig.  67. 

Examine  the  position  three  hours  later,  and  notice  the 
change.  The  groups  have  moved  from  east  to  west,  round 
just  one-eighth  of  the  circle. 

This  apparent  motion  from  east  to  west  is  produced  by 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  from  west  to  east. 

In  the  daytime  sit  in  a  room  facing  east  or  west,  and 
from  which  you  have  a  good  view  of  the  sun.  Draw  the 
curtain  to  hide  partly  the  too  bright  rays  of  the  sun.  Sit  in 
a  chair  some  distance  from  the  window,  so  that  you  can  see 
the  sun  directly  through  a-  pane  of  glass,  but  near  a  section 


POSITION  OF  GREAT  DIPPER  AND  CASSIOPEIA 


407 


of  the  frame  of  the  window.  Keep  the  head  perfectly  still, 
and  notice  if  the  sun  moves  near  the  frame,  or  from  it.  A 
long  paper  tube,  or  piece  of  pipe  two  feet  in  length,  will 
help  to  make  the  experiment  more  decided.  A  change 


Fig.  67.  — Position  of  Great  Dipper  and  Cassiopeia,  in 
September. 

will  be  noticed  in  five  to  ten  minutes.  This  is  evidence  of 
the  earth's  rotation.  Repeat  the  experiment  in  the  evening, 
with  the  moon  or  a  star. 

Watch  a  sunset,  and  try  to  think  of  the  earth  moving 


408  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

towards  the  sun,  and  of  the  sun  standing  still,  as  it  really 
does.  After  one  or  two  trials,  you  will  succeed  in  seeming 
to  see  the  earth  move  up  towards  the  sun. 

The  position  of  the  sun  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset 
should  be  carefully  noticed  the  second  day  of  school,  the 
2ist  of  September,  in  October,  and  finally  the  2ist  of 
December,  and  results  compared. 

The  new  moon  is  usually  seen  early  in  the  evening,  in  the 
western  sky.  Notice  its  exact  position  at  eight  o'clock  P.M., 
by  standing  in  a  certain  place,  and  marking  the  position  by 
two  points,  —  a  tree,  and  a  corner  of  a  house ;  a  distant 
church-spire,  and  a  building ;  a  hill,  and  some  other  point. 
The  next  night  take  the  same  position,  and  notice  the 
change.  The  moon  has  moved  one  twenty-fourth  of  three 
hundred  and  sixty  degrees  towards  the  east. 

Notice  another  change  in  its  appearance.  The  bright 
part  has  increased  in  size. 

Look  in  the  almanac,  and  see  when  the  moon  rises  or  sets  ; 
see  if  the  almanac  is  correct  by  your  local  time.  Find  out, 
by  actual  observation,  how  much  later  or  earlier  it  rises  or 
sets  on  the  following  day.  Look  at  the  moon  through  a 
pair  of  opera-glasses,  but  never  try  this  experiment  on  the 
sun.  [Why?] 

Observe  all  the  phases  of  the  moon,  and  notice  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  moon,  the  earth,  and  the  sun.  Draw  on 
paper  these  positions.  Learn  which  side  is  illumined,  —  the 
side  turned  towards  the  sun,  or  from  it.  At  first  quarter 
was  the  crescent  vertical,  or  horizontal  ? 

If  the  part  turned  towards  the  sun  be  the  part  illumined, 
would  that  be  a  proof  that  the  moon  is  lighted  by  sunlight? 

When  the  moon  is  in  her  first  quarter,  notice  if  you  see  a 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SHAPE  OF  THE  EARTH    409 

faint  illumination  of  that  part  of  the  hemisphere  which  is  not 
included  in  the  bright  crescent.  Does  the  sun  then  shine 
on  the  western  portion  of  the  earth?  Could  this  light  from 
the  earth  be  .reflected  to  the  moon,  and  light  it  up  as  "  earth 
light,"  and  then  be  reflected  to  our  eyes  from  the  surface  of 
the  moon?  Observe  the  exact  position,  by  means  of  two 
fixed  points,  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  moon,  and 
see  if  the  moon  moves  like  the  sun  towards  the  south, 
and  back  again. 

Observations  in  Reference  to  the  Shape  of  the  Earth. 

Climb  a  hill,  or  building,  or  tall  monument.  The  horizon 
increases  in  size,  which  is  proof  that  the  earth  is  spherical. 

If  the  horizon  is  always  circular,  rather  than  oval,  in  shape, 
it  is  proof  that  the  earth  is  spherical,  rather  than  egg-shape. 

Standing  by  the  beach,  notice  the  appearance  of  ships 
sailing  far  away,  or  coming  towards  the  shore. 

When  there  is  a  good  opportunity,  set  up  three  stakes, 
six  feet  high,  on  a  long,  sandy  beach ;  then  sight  from  No. 
i  to  No.  3,  and  notice  that  the  middle  one  seems  to  be 
higher  than  the  other  two,  which  is  a  rough  proof  that 
the  beach  is  spherical  instead  of  level,  as  it  seems. 

As  one  travels  towards  the  equator,  the  North  Star  appears 
nearer  and  nearer  the  horizon,  which  would  not  happen  if 
the  earth  were  flat. 

When  the  moon  is  next  eclipsed  (find  out  hour  and  day 
from  almanac),  notice  the  shape  of  the  shadow  of  the  earth 
cast  on  the  face  of  the  moon.  If  the  shadow  is  circular 
again,  as  it  always  has  been,  it  is  proof  that  the  earth  is 
spherical. 

Magellan,  years  ago,  sailed  round  the  earth ;  and  lately 


41 0  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Mr.  Stevens  of  Boston  has  travelled  round  the  world  on  a 
bicycle. 

If  a  person  goes  up  in  a  balloon,  he  sees  land  and  water, 
not  only  below  him,  but  seemingly  around  him.  The  higher 
he  goes,  the  higher  rises  the  sky-line,  till  he  seems  hanging 
over  a  hollow  bowl.  The  same  appearance  takes  place 
when  a  person  climbs  a  mountain  rising  from  a  plain.  The 
sky-line,  or  circle  of  the  horizon,  becomes  farther  and 
farther  away. 

2.    Study. 

Review  Form  of  Earth  ;  Size  of  Earth. 

Such  terms  as  diameter,  circumference,  radius,  meridian, 
equator,  tropics,  Arctic  circles,  poles,  parallels,  longitude, 
latitude,  study  in  any  good  textbook  on  geography.1 

Learn  a  few  facts  about  the  solar  system,  as 

The  sun  is  the  centre.  Round  him  revolve  eight  planets, 
divided  into  two  groups ;  viz.,  (a)  The  nearer  group,  such 
as  Mercury,  Venus,  Earth,  and  Mars ;  (6)  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Uranus,  and  Neptune. 

Draw  on  the  board  a  circle  two  inches  in  diameter,  and 
color  it  red,  for  the  sun  ;  then  draw  about  it  circles  having 
a  radius  of  three  inches  to  represent  the  orbit  of  Mercury, 
four  inches  to  represent  that  of  Venus,  five  inches  for  the 
earth's  orbit,  seven  for  Mars,  eighteen  for  Jupiter,  thirty-two 
for  Saturn,  sixty-five  for  Uranus,  ninety-six  for  Neptune. 
The  last  two  you  can  only  indicate  by  pinning  a  colored 
piece  of  paper,  at  the  right  distance  from  the  sun,  on  the 
side  of  the  room,  over  the  blackboard. 

Of  the  first  four,  the  earth  is  the  largest.  Of  the  second 
four,  Jupiter  is  the  largest. 

1  Barnes's  is  especially  recommended. 


STUDY  OF  THE  PLANETS  AND  STARS  411 

Jupiter  is  1,390  times  the  size  of  the  earth. 

Mercury  is  thirty-five  million  miles  from  the  sun,  Venus 
sixty-six  million  miles,  the  earth  ninety-two  million  miles, 
Mars  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine  million  miles,  etc.  Mars 
is  noted  for  its  red  appearance,  Jupiter  for  its  belts,  Saturn 
for  its  two  rings. 

The  earth  has  one  moon ;  but  Jupiter  has  four,  and 
Saturn  has  eight.  By  these  moons,  the  people  can  tell  the 
time  of  day. 

The  four  inner  planets  rotate  in  about  one  day  of  twenty- 
four  hours  ;  the  outer  ones,  in  a  day  of  ten  hours.  The  sun 
rotates  in  a  day  of  six  hundred  hours.  The  earth  revolves 
about  the  sun  in  one  year,  Mercury  in  one-fourth  of  a  year, 
Venus  in  about  one-half  of  a  year,  Mars. in  two  years,  and 
Jupiter  in  twelve  years. 

On  Mars,  the  ice  and  snow  about  the  poles  can  be  dis- 
tinctly seen. 

The  diameter  of  the  sun  is  eight  hundred  and  sixty  thou- 
sand miles.  All  the  planets  are  equal  in  size  to  one  seven- 
hundredth  of  the  sun. 

The  stars  are  supposed  to  be  suns,  and  centres  of  systems. 

Romer  found  that  a  ray  of  light  travels  at  the  rate  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  miles  in  a  second  of  time, 
at  which  rate  it  will  take  four  hours  for  light  to  go  from 
the  sun  to  Neptune,  eight  minutes  to  go  from  the  sun 
to  the  earth,  and  three  years  to  reach  the  nearest  star. 
For  light  to  reach  some  of  the  stars  would  require  several 
centuries. 


412  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Earth's  Daily  Motion,  called   Rotation. 

This  motion  is  best  illustrated  at  first  by  a  top's  spinning. 
The  earth  spins  round  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  axis  is  the  imaginary  line  around  which  it  spins  or 
turns  ;  illustrated  to  the  eye  by  a  small  globe.  (Nothing  is 
better  for  this  than  a  twenty-five  cent  paper  globe.)  Differ- 
ent children  should  handle  the  globe,  and  point  out  the  axis 
and  poles.  (See  p.  396.) 

It  is  important  at  this  point  for  the  teacher  to  ask 'the 
pupils  to  imagine  the  great  earth  rotating  in  space,  as  seen 
from  the  moon.  A  picture  like  the  first  one  in  Warren's 
Common  School  Geography  will  help  the  boys  and  girls 
wonderfully. 

The  teacher  can  help  by  asking  such  questions  as  these  :  — 

1.  If  we  were  on  the  moon,  what  size  would  the  earth 
seem  to  be? 

2.  If  we  could  see  it  with  a  good  telescope,  how  would 
the  poles  look? 

3.  What  is  a  telescope? 

4.  How  many  pupils  have  one? 

5.  How  many  have  seen  one? 

6.  How  many  have  a  similar  instrument? 

7.  Could  we  see  the  axis? 

8.  Could  we  tell  where  the  axis  is  located? 

9.  Could  we  perceive  a  spinning  motion? 

10.  Do  we   see   such   a   motion  when   we   look   at   the 
moon  ? 

1 1 .  If  not,  why  not  ? 

12.  Would  the  earth  seem  to  move  among  the  clouds  as 
the  moon  does,  when  viewed  from  the  earth  ? 


DIRECTION   OF  THE  EARTH'S   ROTATION  413 

13.  Does  the  air  on  the  earth  move  with  the  earth,  or 
does  the  earth  move  in  this  belt  of  air? 

14.  Viewed  from  the  moon,  would  the  rate  of  rotation  at 
the  poles  and  at  the  equator  be  the  same  ? 

15.  If  different,  where  would  it  be  the  swifter?     Why? 

Direction  of  the  Earth's  Rotation. 

The  earth  turns  from  west  to  east.  This  makes  what 
two  heavenly  bodies  appear  to  move  from  east  to 
west? 

Every  morning  this  movement  of  the  earth  brings  pupils 
and  teacher  into  the  sunlight,  and  makes  this  light  come 
from  the  east.  What  would  happen  if  the  earth  should 
forget  for  a  week  to  rotate  ? 

On  account  of  the  earth's  rotation,  in  this  way  it  happens, 
that,  when  the  London  boy  goes  home  from  school  at  five 
o'clock  for  his  supper,  the  Boston  boy  is  going  home  for  his 
dinner  at  12  M.,  and  the  San  Francisco  boy  is  going  to 
school  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  the  Honolulu  boy 
is  breaking  his  night's  fast  at  6  A.M.,  and  the  Chinese 
boy  is  dreaming  of  kites  and  fire-crackers. 

At  St.  Petersburg,  in  sixty  degrees  north  latitude,  the 
speed  of  the  rotation  is  about  nine  miles  a  minute ;  in 
Paris  it  is  eleven  and  a  half;  at  the  equator  it  is  eighteen 
miles  a  minute,  or  a  thousand  miles  an  hour,  which  equals 
the  flight  of  a  cannon  ball. 

The  earth  rotates  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  proof 
is  found,  (a)  in  the  apparent  rotation  of  the  Great  Dipper 
and  other  stars,  every  twenty-four  hours  (see  p.  407)  ; 
(^).if  a  stone  is  dropped  from  a  high  monument  or  cliff,  it 
always  falls  east  of  a  vertical  line. 


414  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  effects  of  this  rotation  are  to  cause,  — 

1.  An  alternation  of  day  and  night. 

2.  A  flattening  at  the  poles. 

3.  The  apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  in 
the  opposite  direction. 

The  Yearly  Motion  of  the  Earth,  or  its  Revolution. 

Illustration :  Jackson's  Astronomical  Geography,  Rey- 
nolds's  Astronomical  Chart ;  all  astronomies  and  some  geog- 
raphies contain  pictures  of  this  yearly  motion.  The  best  is 
in  Barnes  V  Geography,  pp.  9  and  10.  (See  Fig.  68,  p.  417.) 

A  globe  held  before  the  light  streaming  in  through  a  solar 
camera  gives  the  pupils  the  best  idea  of  the  illumination 
of  the  earth,  and  the  changes  of  the  seasons.  A  common 
lamp  and  the  globe,  used  on  a  dark  afternoon,  will  answer 
very  well. 

If  three  pasteboard  maps  or  writing-charts  be  spread  out 
upon  the  teacher's  desk,  and  a  large  ball  be  placed  in 
the  centre,  or,  better,  to  avoid  confusion,  if  the  teacher 
place  a  circular  piece  of  paper  of  a  bright  color  on  the 
centre  of  the  chart,  to  represent  the  sun,  the  pupils  will 
have  a  pretty  good  representation  of  the  sun,  the  plane  of 
the  earth's  orbit,  and  the  orbit  itself.  A  small  globe  carried 
round  the  edge  of  these  charts,  not  above  the  edge,  the 
north  pole  always  pointing  towards  the  north,  will  help 
the  children  to  imagine  how  the  world  travels  round  the  sun 
each  year.  Place  something  high  up  on  the  north  side  of 
the  room  to  represent  the  North  Star. 

The  globe  placed  on  the  side  of  the  representative  sun 
nearest  the  North  Star,  with  the  north  pole  pointing  towards 
the  supposed  North  Star,  will  be  in  such  a  position  that  the 


YEARLY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  415 

children  can  readily  tell  the  season  of  the  year  north  of 
the  equator  and  south  of  the  equator,  if  they  remember 
about  perpendicular  and  oblique  rays  of  light.  Place  the 
globe  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  sun,  the  axis  still  inclining 
as  before,  twenty- three  and  a  half  degrees,  and  ask  the 
pupils  to  tell  how  the  rays  of  light,  supposed  to  be  shining 
from  the  supposed  sun,  will  strike  the  portion  of  the  globe 
near  the  north  pole ;  near  the  United  States.  They  will 
answer  correctly. 

The  next  day  the  children  can  be  led  to  see  why  the 
tropics  are  placed  where  they  are,  and  also  in  reference  to 
the  Arctic  circles. 

Now  call  their  attention  to  the  reasons  for  the  zones,  their 
characteristics,  and  the  fact  that  the  zones  are  belts. 

With  this  same  simple  apparatus,  the  teacher  can  lead  the 
boys  and  girls  to  imagine  when  the  sun  will  be  in  the  zenith 
at  noon  to  a  person  standing  on  the  equator;  on  the  tropic 
of  Cancer ;  on  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 


Change  of  Seasons. 

The  principal  effect  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  together 
with  the  inclination  and  unvarying  direction  of  the  earth's 
axis,  is  the  change  of  seasons. 

Another  effect  is  the  change  in  the  length  of  day  and 
night. 

A  third  effect  is  the  apparent  yearly  motion  of  the  sun 
through  the  different  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

Learn  the  significance  of  the  dates,  Sept.  21,  Dec.  21, 
March  21,  and  June  21. 


4*6  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Sept.  21  fhe  sun  will  be  directly  over  the  equator,  the 
terrestrial  hemisphere  from  pole  to  pole  will  correspond  with 
the  hemisphere  of  illumination,  and  the  line  of  illumination 
will  extend  from  pole  to  pole.  Hence  every  parallel  will  be 
half  lighted  at  once. 

Consequently  day  and  night  will  be  the  same  length 
throughout  the  world.  The  sun  will  rise  in  the  true  east, 
and  set  in  the  true  west. 

March  21  the  sun  is  over  the  equator,  and  the  days  and 
nights  will  be  equal. 

Dec.  21  the  sun  will  be  directly  over  the  tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. This  tropic  will  be  more  than  half  lighted,  and  the 
day  will  be  longer  than  the  night  to  any  living  on  that  tropic. 
The  difference  on  the  equator,  Dec.  21,  between  day  and 
night,  will  not  be  very  great.  But  the  tropic  of  Cancer  will 
have  a  smaller  part  of  the  circle  lighted  than  is  not  lighted, 
hence  then  the  day  will  not  be  as  long  as  the  night.  On 
the  fortieth  parallel  north  latitude,  the  difference  will  be  very 
great.  Dec.  21  the  day  is  ten  hours  and  five  minutes,  and 
the  night  is  thirteen  hours  and  fifty-five  minutes. 

Dec.  21  the  sun,  at  noon,  on  the  fortieth  parallel  north 
latitude,  is  not  very  high  in  the  heavens ;  and  we  speak  of 
the  sun  being  very  far  to  the  south.  The  arc  cut  on  the 
sky  this  day  is  small,  and  consequently  the  sun  rises  and 
sets  south  of  the  true  east  and  west. 

Dec.  21,  on  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  sun  will  only  appear  at 
noon  in  the  south,  as  if  about  to  rise.  Within  the  Arctic 
Circle  no  sun  will  be  seen  at  this  time.  Darkness  reigns 
supreme. 

The  Arctic  night  in  Smith  Sound  lasts  a  third  of  the  year. 


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418  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Dr.  Hayes  has  given  several  sublime  descriptions  of  the 
darkness. 

As  the  south  pole  is  turned  towards  the  sun  at  this  time, 
this  part  of  the  earth  receives  an  unusually  large  amount 
of  light  and  heat.  The  sun  is  now  perpendicular  over  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  illumines  a  hemisphere  extending 
ninety  degrees  south  and  ninety  degrees  north  of  this  circle. 
Ninety  degrees  south  will  carry  the  light  as  far  as  the  farther 
side  of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  The  day  on  this  circle  will  be 
just  twenty-four  hours  long.  Within  the  circle  the  day  will 
be  more  than  twenty-four  hours  long;  and  it  will  grow 
longer  and  longer  till  the  south  pole  is  reached,  when  it 
will  be  six  months  long.  At  this  season  of  the  year  the  days 
will  be  longer  than  the  nights  everywhere  south  of  the 
equator.  Consequently  the  nights  must  be  longer  than 
the  days  north  of  the  equator. 

The  teacher  should  ask  such  questions  as  the  following  :  — 

1.  Dec.  21,  what  is  the  length  of  day  at  the  Arctic  Circle? 
Of  the  night  ? 

2.  What  is,  then,  the  length  of  day  at  the  equator? 

3.  Dec.   30,   will   the    day   on   the   Antarctic    Circle    be 
increased  or  diminished  in  length  ? 

4.  Is  the  length  of  day  changed  by  changing  locality  on 
the  same  date? 

5.  Is  it  changed  by  changing  date  at  the  same  locality? 

6.  Have  many  persons  experienced  these  changes  within 
the  Antarctic  Circle  ?     Why  not  ? 

7.  What  is  the  length  of  day  on  our  parallel? 

June  21  the  sun  is  directly  over  the  tropic  of  Cancer. 
Persons  living  on  that  tropic  will  see  the  sun  at  mid-day 
directly  in  the  zenith.  The  tropic  of  Cancer  will  be  more 


CHANGE  OF   SEASONS  419 

than  half  lighted,  and  the  day  will  be  longer  than  the  night 
on  that  circle. 

On  that  day  the  fortieth  north  parallel  will  be  more  than 
half  illumined,  and  consequently  the  day  will  be  much 
longer  than  the  night.  The  sun  will  rise  at  4.23,  and  set  at 
7.40,  making  a  day  of  fifteen  hours  and  seventeen  minutes, 
being  the  longest  in  the  year. 

At  this  time  of  the  year  the  Arctic  Circle  will  have 
twenty-four  hours  of  sunlight,  as  the  sun  will  not  set  at  all. 
The  northern  parts  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Russia  have 
the  "midnight  sun"  from  the  latter  part  of  May  till 
August. 

In  Hammerfest  the  sun  shines  without  interruption  from 
May  1 6  till  July  27.  It  does  not  shine  so  brightly  at  twelve 
midnight  as  at  twelve  noon.  [Read  Du  Chaillu's  Land  of 
the  Midnight  Sun,  pp.  48,  57,  61,  63,  70,  and  107.] 

The  appearance  of  the  sun  on  the  2ist  of  June,  to  a 
person  standing  on  the  Arctic  Circle,  is  thus  described  by 
a  Boston  teacher  :  — 

"  At  midnight  the  sun  will  be  at  our  northern  horizon,  and  will 
move  toward  the  east,  rising  above  the  horizon  as  it  moves,  until  it 
reaches  the  east,  when  it  will  be  twenty-three  and  a  half  degrees  above 
the  horizon.  It  will  continue  on  toward  the  south,  rising  above  the 
horizon  as  it  moves,  until  it  reaches  its  superior  culmination,  forty- 
seven  degrees  above  our  southern  horizon,  at  noon.  It  will  then 
move  on  toward  the  west,  gradually  sinking  toward  the  horizon  as  it 
moves,  until  it  reaches  the  west,  twenty-three  and  a  half  degrees  above 
our  horizon.  It  will  then  move  on,  gradually  sinking  toward  the 
horizon,  until  it  reaches  the  horizon  at  its  northern  point  just  twenty- 
four  hours  after  leaving  it." 


42O  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Sun. 

All  power  seems  to  come  directly  or  indirectly  from  the 
sun.  In  a  physical  sense  he  is  our  creator,  and  he  keeps 
us  alive  from  day  to  day.  The  sun  caused  the  vegetation 
to  grow  ages  ago.  This  vegetation  subsequently  made 
our  coal ;  and  the  coal  makes  the  steam  or  electricity 
which  makes  our  engines  move.  On  a  hot  day  enough 
heat  is  absorbed,  in  a  little  island,  to  drive,  if  it  could 
be  realized,  all  the  steam-engines  in  the  world.  There 
is  a  possibility  of  turning  this  heat  of  the  sun  into  direct 
power.  At  the  last  Paris  exposition  an  extraordinary 
machine  was  shown,  looking  like  an  inverted  umbrella 
pointing  towards  the  sun,  invented  by  M.  Mouchat,  which 
concentrated  the  rays  of  the  sun  on  a  boiler  in  the  focus, 
and  drove  a  steam-engine  with  it,  which  in  turn  drove  a 
printing-press.  Mr.  Ericsson  has  invented,  and  is  using 
now  in  New  York,  a  working  solar  engine  of  still  greater 
power  and  utility.  (See  Langley's  New  Astronomy,  pp. 
108-112.) 

The  Moon.      • 

Phases. — The  teacher  should  draw  on  the  board  a  small 
circle  to  represent  the  earth ;  then  draw  about  it  a  large 
circle  to  represent  the  orbit  of  the  moon ;  then  draw  a 
small  circle  at  the  four  quarters  of  the  large  circle,  to  rep- 
resent the  moon  in  these  four  parts  of  her  orbit.  Represent 
the  light  as  coming  from  the  right.  The  teacher  then  should 
ask  the  children  to  represent  the  hemisphere  of  the  earth 
and  the  moon  in  these  four  positions,  which  is  lighted  by 
the  sun's  rays.  After  which  they  should  be  asked  by  the 
teacher  to  show  in  drawing  how  the  moon  would  appear  to 
an  observer  on  the  earth  in  each  quarter. 


THE  MOON  421 

If  the  children  are  thus  led  from  their  previous  observa- 
tions of  the  moon's  phases,  and  a  little  aid  from  the  teacher, 
to  complete  this  common  diagram  of  the  moon's  phases, 
they  will  be  likely  to  understand  very  clearly  this  monthly 
occurrence. 

Motion  North  and  South. — The  path  of  the  full  moon 
in  the  sky  is  far  north,  nearer  the  zenith,  in  winter,  and  far 
south,  nearer  the  horizon,  in  summer.  Hence  the  moon 
shines  a  long  time  in  winter  when  needed,  and  a  short  time 
in  summer.  Thus  the  moon's  path  in  the  sky  is  exactly 
the  reverse  of  the  sun. 

Time  of  Rising.  —  As  the  moon  revolves  around  the  earth 
in  one  month  of  twenty-seven  and  a  third  days,  she  moves 
thirteen  degrees  east  while  the  earth  rotates  once ;  thus  she 
gets  thirteen  degrees  ahead  of  the  earth's  horizon  each 
day,  or  twenty-four  hours.  The  horizon  of  the  earth  moves 
at  the  rate  of  one  degree  in  four  minutes ;  to  catch  up  with 
the  moon's  thirteen  degrees,  this  will  take  about  fifty  min- 
utes, so  the  moon  rises  fifty  minutes  later  each  night.  But 
in  September,  in  latitude  40°,  this  difference  is  decreased 
to  twenty-five  minutes.  As  the  farmers  observe  and  enjoy 
this  more  regular  time  of  the  moon's  appearance,  they  have 
given  a  name  to  the  September  moon,  and  they  call  it  the 
"  Harvest  Moon." 

Same  Side.  —  The  children  can  be  led  to  observe  the 
appearance  of  different  full  moons,  and  to  notice  the  similar 
peculiar  dark  markings.  This  sameness  is  a  proof  that  the 
same  side  is  constantly  turned  towards  the  earth.  Thus 
the  moon  differs  from  the  planets  or  the  sun. 


422  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Lifeless  Moon. 

The  moon  is  dead.  It  has  not  life  enough  left  to  ooze  forth  the  tiniest  mud  volcano, 
or  spurt  out  the  feeblest  geyser.  No  throb  ever  reaches  its  surface,  and  not  the  faint- 
est rumble  is  ever  echoed  from  its  jagged  mountain-sides.  No  earthquake  wave  can 
ever  sweep  its  island  shores,  for  earthquakes  there  are  things  of  the  almost  infinite 
past;  and  the  last  drop  of  water  quitted  the  surface  of  the  planet  aeons  ago.  Its  very 
atmosphere  has  deserted  it;  and  if,  indeed,  there  were  a  "man  in  the  moon,"  he 
could  never  hear  the  sound  of  his  own  voice.  But  if  by  some  means  this  mythical 
man  could  have  witnessed  the  "  Ischia  disaster,"  and  the  "Java  catastrophe,"  how  he 
would  have  longed  that  any  such  manifestations  of  life  were  possible  on  his  lifeless 
planet. 

There  is  evidence  enough  to  show  that  at  one  period  its  volcanic  activity  must  have 
been  of  the  most  stupendous  kind,  far  exceeding  any  thing  ever  witnessed  on  its 
mother-earth.  But  that  has  gone  with  its  water  and  its  atmosphere,  and  taken  with 
it  all  possibility  of  life. 

Tides. 

Ask  the  children  to  tell  you  what  they  have  observed 
about  the  tides,  or  the  periodical  rising  of  the  waters  of  the 
ocean. 

The  ancients  noticed  that  high  tide  came  about  one  hour 
later  every  day,  and  that  the  moon  rose  about  one  hour  later 
each  day ;  and  they  suspected  some  connection  of  cause 
and  effect  on  account  of  this  coincidence. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  first  explained  how  the  unequal  attrac- 
tion of  the  moon  on  the  different  parts  of  the  earth  causes 
the  water  nearest  the  moon  to  rise  towards  it,  and  the  water 
farthest  from  the  moon  to  fall  away.  As  the  earth  rotates, 
different  parts  are  in  turn  brought  nearest  the  moon,  and 
the  water  is  heaped  up  at  those  successive  places,  and  also 
just  opposite :  hence  every  place  has,  each  twenty-four 
hours,  two  high  tides,  and  also  two  low  tides. 

Let  the  teacher  illustrate  this  on  the  board,  by  drawing 
first  a  circle  to  represent  the  earth,  and  supposing  this  to  be 
covered  equally  and  entirely  with  water.  Then  below  draw 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM  423 

another  circle,  same  size,  to  represent  the  earth  again.  At 
right  draw,  three  feet  away,  a  smaller  circle  to  represent  the 
moon.  Then  draw  —  all  before  the  class  —  the  water, 
somewhat  heaped,  nearest  moon,  and  on  opposite  side. 

Other  diagrams  can  be  added  to  show  the  help  of  the 
sun  when  in  same  line,  hence  spring  tides ;  when  sun  and 
moon  are  at  right  angles  with  the  earth,  the  tide  will  be 
unusually  low,  or  neap  tide.  The  difference  between  spring 
and  neap  tides  in  New- York  harbor  is  two  feet.  The  aver- 
age tide  in  New  York  is  four  and  a  half  feet ;  in  Boston,  nine 
to  ten  feet ;  in  mid-ocean,  three  and  a  half  feet.  In  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  owing  to  its  tunnel  shape,  it  rises  to  seventy  feet. 
In  Venice,  the  tide  rises  only  eighteen  inches.  On  Lake 
Superior,  only  one  inch. 

Representation  of  the  Solar  System. 

Signor  Perini  of  London  has  thought  out  an  ingenious  method  of  showing  the 
arrangement  and  movements  of  the  earth  and  planets.  The  upper  part  of  an  ordinary 
room  is  changed  to  a  blue  dome  sprinkled  with  stars,  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac 
being  arranged  around  the  base  of  the  dome.  Suspended  from  the  centre  of  the  dome 
by  a  narrow  tube  is  a  glass  globe,  lighted  with  gas,  to  represent  the  sun.  The  planets 
with  their  moons,  Saturn  with  its  rings,  are  also  suspended  at  appropriate  distances, 
each  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  and  each  the  proper  size.  By  means  of  clock- 
work, the  planets  move  noiselessly  around  the  sun  in  their  proper  elliptical  orbits. 
By  ingenious  watchwork  arrangement  inside,  the  earth  turns  upon  its  axis,  and  the 
moon  revolves  around  it. 

Another  excellent  means  of  representing  the  same  to  the  eye,  is  by  the  COSMO- 
SPHERE  invented  by  Professor  F.  H.  Bailey,  Boston.  This  instrument  shows  the 
heavens  as  seen  from  any  part  of  the  earth,  and  the  movements  of  sun,  moon,  and 
stars. 

3.   Beading  and  Talking. 

[The  teacher  will  find  plenty  of  material  for  outside  instruction  and  illustration  in 
the  following  books.] 

Tides.     Sharp] ess  and  Philips's  Astronomy •,  p.  122. 
How   the   Moon   causes   Eclipses.     Science    Primers :    Lockyer's 
Astronomy,  p  45. 


424  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Star  Depths      Proctor's  Our  Place  among  Infinities,  p.  182. 

Saturn.     Proctor's  Our  Place  among  Infinities,  p.  128. 

A  Dream.     Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heaven,  p.  I. 

The  Sun.     Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heaven,  p.  n. 

The  Queen  of  Night.     Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heaven,  p.  20. 

Jupiter's  Families  of  Moons.     Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heaven,  p.  85. 

The  Flight  of  Light.     Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heave JL,  p.  202. 

Colored  Suns.     Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heaven,  p.  221. 

The  First  Predicted  Eclipse,  by  O.  M.  Mitchell,  p.  109,  in  Five- 
Minute  Recitations. 

Half-Hours  with  the  Stars,  by  Richard  A.  Proctor. 

Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,  by  Du  Chaillu.  Vol.  i.  pp.  48,  57,  61, 
63,  70,  and  107. 

The  Sun's  Energy.  The  New  Astronomy,  by  Professor  S.  P 
Langley,  chaps,  iii.  and  iv. 

The  Moon's  Surface.  Proctor's  Moon,  pp.  185-190.  Published  by 
Appleton  &  Co 

NOTE.  —  The  many  students  of  astronomical  geography,  living  in  or  near  Boston, 
have  at  their  disposal,  for  a  dime  each,  a  good  telescope,  always  found  on  the  Common 
under  the  charge  of  Mr.  T.  McKenzie  Axe,  whose  residence  is  corner  Bradford  Place 
and  Mason  Street.  This  instrument  has  a  nine-inch  aperture,  and  shows  with  good 
effect,  each  in  its  appropriate  season,  the  sun,  moon,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Venus,  double 
stars,  etc.  Many  of  the  classes  in  high  schools,  and  in  private  schools,  regularly  avail 
themselves  of  the  use  of  this  instrument.  Mr.  Axe  is  full  of  information  on  this  his 
favorite  topic,  and  always  ready  to  meet  and  instruct  the  young. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION 


HE  picked  something  out  of  every  thing  he  read.  —  Pliny. 

WHAT  is  twice  read,  is  commonly  better  remembered  than  what  is 
transcribed. —  Johnson. 


425 


SOURCES  FOR   CONSULTATION 


PRIVATE  and  Public  libraries,  magazines,  and  newspapers. 
426 


CHAPTER   XIX 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION 

HARPER'S  MAGAZINE — BOUND  VOLUMES  OF  THE  SAME  —  OTHER  SOURCES — SPECIAL 
SOURCES — REPORTS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETIES  —  IMPORTANT  GEOGRAPHICAL 
SUBJECTS  IN  IMPORTANT  BOOKS —  POEMS  OF  PLACES — SIBERIA — MONT  BLANC 

—  IMPORTANT  POEMS   SELECTED  —  PLACE-NAMES 

THESE  sources,  in  general,  are  found  abundantly  in  books 
of  travel,  magazines,  newspapers,  geographical  readers, 
books  of  reference,  such  as  gazetteers,  encyclopaedias,  etc. 
A  full  list  of  the  best  of  these  is  given  in  the  next  chapter. 

If  the  teacher  desires  to  find  information  upon  some 
particular  subject,  such  as  would  interest  a  class  in  a  gram- 
mar school,  giving  'more  details  than  books  of  reference, 
we  refer  him  to  Harper's  Monthly  Magazine,  and  to  the 
recently  published  index  to  the  same,  giving  the  contents 
in  full,  from  vol.  i.  to  vol.  Ixx.  (1886). 

To  show  what  a  wealth  of  geographical  information  is 
here  at  hand,  let  us  turn  to  some  topic  likely  to  be  called 
for  by  a  wide-awake  teacher,  as,  for  instance,  India.  In 
Harper's,  there  will  be  found  on  this  subject  thirty  fully 
illustrated  articles,  by  such  well-known  writers  as  J.  H. 
Brown,  James  Parton,  W.  S.  Stuart,  Col.  Thomas  W.  Knox, 
A.  H.  Guernsey,  C.  T.  Brooks,  and  others.  The  special 
subjects  treated  are  Benares,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  Cashmere 
Valley,  Himalayas,  Land  of  the  White  Elephant,  Madras, 
Taj  Mahal,  Tiger  Hunting,  etc. 

427 


428  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Harper's  Magazine  for  May,  1888, 

contains,  "  London  as  a  Literary  Centre,"  "  A  Winter  in 
Algiers,"  "Studies  of  the  Great  West,"  "Chicago,"  "Russian 
Convicts  in  the  Salt-mines  of  Siberia,"  "The  City  of 
Denver."  All  these  articles  are  beautifully  illustrated. 

Below  are  given  the  titles  of  interesting  articles  in  the  late 
bound  numbers  of  Harper 's  Magazine  :  — 

(The  numbers  here,  and  elsewhere  in  this  chapter,  refer 
to  pages  in  the  respective  volumes.) 

Vol.  LXVL,  December,  i882-May,  1883. —  Arizona,  489;  The 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  925;  The  Columbia  River,  3;  Southern  California, 
45-,  English  Farmers,  651  ;  Havre,  28;  Holland,  165,  387,  520;  San 
Francisco,  813;  The  Welsh  Coast,  327. 

Vol.  LXVIL,  June  to  November,  1883.  —  Alleghanies,  327 ;  Can- 
ada, 375;  Spain,  32,  etc.;  The  Catskills,  521;  Cincinnati,  245; 
London,  828;  Hiawatha,  68. 

Vol.  LXVIII.,  December,  i^-May,  1884.  — Bank  of  England, 
885,  Canada,  392 ;  Frazer  to  the  Columbia,  706,  869;  Florida,  598; 
West  Highlands,  63;  Mentone,  189,  367;  St.  Louis,  497 ;  Upper 
Thames,  335. 

Vol.  LXIX.,  June  to  November,  1884. —  Boston  Harbor,  352, 
Columbia  College,  813;  New-York  Custom  House,  38;  Holland, 
327,  523,  etc.;  Lake  Superior,  103;  The  Nile,  165;  Queenstown, 
489 ;  Salt  Lake  City,  388 ,  Sheffield,  67 ;  Sierra  Madra,  747  ;  St. 
Lawrence,  197  ;  Columbia  River,  500. 

Vol.  LXX.,  December,  i&%$,-May,  1885.  —  Cape-Ann  Quarries, 
549;  Florida,  216;  A  Pair  of  Shoes,  273;  London,  857;  Pullman, 
452  ;  Rio  Grande,  687  ;  Washington,  520;  Hennequen  Plant,  372. 

Vol.  LXX  I,  June  to  November,  1885  —Bogota,  47;  Buffalo,  193- 
Guatemala,  886;  Hartford,  715;  A  Silk  Dress,  240,  Labrador,  489, 
etc.;  India  Architecture,  165:  Ottawa,  327;  English  and  American 
Railways,  375. 

Vol.LXXII.,  December,  1885-^7,  1886.  — Africa's  Awakening, 
546,  Afghan  Boundary  Commission,  595;  Blue-Grass  Region  of 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION   AND   ILLUSTRATION  429 

Kentucky,  365;  Cape  Breton  Folk,  607;  Cattle-raising  on  the 
Plains,  788;  Cleveland,  561;  Kuff's  Establishment,  495;  British 
NavY»  3335  Persia,  217. 

Vol.  LXXIIL,  June  to  November,  1886.  — Central  Engine  of  the 
Solar  System,  625;  Detroit,  327;  Cumberland  Gap,  50,  Docks  in 
United  States,  616;  Salem,  602;  A  Lump  of  Sugar,  72;  United- 
wStates  Artillery,  779. 

For  more  information  from  bound  volumes  of  this  and 
other  magazines,  we  refer  the  reader  to  Poole's  Index. 

Other  sources  of  recent  knowledge  will  be  found  in  the 
following :  Harper 's  Weekly,  The  Century,  Peter mann  's 
Mitteilungen  (German),  Scribncr^s,  Popular  Science,  Over 
land  Monthly,  The  Atlantic,  and  the  best  daily  newspapers. 

Recent  geographical  knowledge  is  furnished  week  by 
week,  for  the  schoolroom,  by  The  Week's  Current,  published 
by  E.  O.  Vaile,  Chicago,  111. ;  and  the  School  Herald,  pub- 
lished by  W.  I.  Chase,  Chicago.  The  Intelligence,  by  E.  O. 
Vaile,  also  contains  much  geographical  information ;  so 
does  The  Fountain,  by  W.  H.  Shelley,  York,  Penn. 

Special  Sources  for  Special  Information. 

For  Arctic  regions,  consult  Greely's  Three  Years  of 
Arctic  Service,  Nourse's  American  Explorations,  Hayes's 
Open  Polar  Sea. 

For  Greenland,  consult  Professor  Rink's  Greenland. 

The  best  physical  maps  are  found  in  Guyot's  and  Warren's 
geographies. 

The  best  political  maps  are  in  Warren's,  Barnes's,  and 
Harper's. 

The  best  treatment  of  South  America  is  in  Appletons'. 

The  best  representations  of  continental  relief  will  be  found 
in  Barnes's. 


430  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

McNally's  Geography  contains  invaluable  foot-notes. 

Johnston's  Descriptive  Geography  and  Richardson's 
Manual  of  Geography  contain  needed  information,  arranged 
by  topics. 

The  best  condensed  and  well-illustrated  treatment  of 
astronomical  geography  is  given  in  Barnes's  Complete 
Geography. 

For  a  fuller  account,  see  Jackson's  Astronomical  Geogra- 
phy, published  by  Heath  &  Co.  Johonnot's  Geographical 
Reader  \$  well  adapted  for  the  graduating  class,  and  full  of 
important  general  information. 

Appleton's  Encyclopaedia  and  Lippincott's  Gazetteer  sup- 
ply full  and  accurate  information  to  date  of  publication. 

Guyot's  Physical  Geography  is  the  best  single  text-book 
for  grammar-school  teachers. 

Our  World  No.  2  has  many  good  descriptions  of  the 
people. 

Knox's  Boy  Travellers  (12  vols.)  is  the  best  juvenile  book 
of  travel. 

Seven  Little  Sisters,  by  Miss  Andrews,  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  supplementary  readers  for  the  lowest  classes. 

The  Consular  Reports  issued  by  the  United-States  Gov- 
ernment, Department  of  State,  contain  the  most  recent 
information  in  reference  to  foreign  countries. 

Abercromby's  Weather  contains  the  most  recent  knowl- 
edge, founded  on  signal-station  reports. 

The  best  geographical  encyclopaedias  are  Stanford's  Com- 
pendium (6  vols.)  and  Reclus's  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants 
(15  vols).  Superbly  illustrated. 

The  best  book  on  teaching  moulding  and  relief  is  Frye's 
Geography  and  Sand  Modelling. 


SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION   AND   ILLUSTRATION          431 

The  best  book  on  commerce  is  Yeats's  Recent  and  Exist- 
ing  Commerce.  1888. 

Brown's  Manual  of  Commerce  is  a  smaller  book  of  four 
hundred  pages,  well  arranged,  and  adapted  to  school  pur- 
poses .Published  in  1871. 

The  American  Almanac  by  Spofford,  Congressional  libra- 
rian, published  every  March,  is  invaluable  for  reliable  statis- 
tics. 

The  Pocket  Atlas  of  the  World  (twenty-five  cents)  con- 
tains much  important  and  reliable  information  useful  for  the 
schoolroom. 

The  Annual  Report  on  the  Commerce  and  Navigation  of 
//L  United  States,  by  the  Treasury  Department,  Washington, 
contains  statistics  of  great  value,  and  much  interesting 
information. 

One  of  the  most  helpful  books  on  methods  of  teaching 
geography  is  Miss  Crocker's. 

Around  the  World  by  Prime,  Due  West  by  Ballou,  Over 
the  Ocean  by  Guild,  contain  the  exact  information  each 
teacher  needs  to  use  in  the  schoolroom. 

Reports  of  the  Geographical  Societies. 

There  are  nearly  sixty  of  these  societies  in  the  world, 
including  one  in  Algeria  and  one  in  Japan.  The  oldest  is 
the  French  Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  established  in 
1821  ;  the  largest  and  the  most  influential  is  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  of  London.  The  American  Geographi- 
cal Society  is  fifth  in  size.  These  societies  publish  a  hundred 
and  twenty-six  different  periodicals,  usually  called  reports. 
The  reports  of  the  American,  Royal,  French,  German,  and 
Russian  are  full  of  valuable  information,  as  may  be  judged 
by  the  epitomes  given  below. 


432  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

To  show  the  value  and  richness  of  these  reports,  we  give 
a  few  of  the  subjects  treated  in  recent  numbers  :  — 

Reports  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society ',  London,  for  1886. — 
From  Cape  Town  to  Lake  Nyassa,  65 ;  Notes  on  Mount  Everest,  88 ; 
Arctic  Explorations,  156;  Korea,  289;  Physical  Geography  of  Brazil, 
353;  In  Kalahari,  437;  Burma,  481;  Congo  Free  State,  609;  River 
Systems  of  South  India,  68 1.  Many  valuable  maps. 

American  Geographical  Society,  Vols.  XIV.  and  XV.,  for  1882-83. 
Part  i  :  Siberia,  by  George  Kennan,  I ;  The  Gulf  Stream,  by  Com- 
modore J.  R.  Bartlett,  69;  Lake  Moeris,  by  F.  C.  Whitehouse, 
85;  Explorations  of  the  River  Bene,  South  America,  by  Dr.  E.  R. 
Heath,  117;  The  New  Germany,  by  President  White,  205;  Travels 
in  Sweden,  etc.,  by  Du  Chaillu,  285.  Part  2  :  Dutch  South  Africa, 
by  Col.  Aylword,  I ;  The  Philippine  Islands,  by  S.  Kneeland,  73 ; 
Currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  by  Th.  Antisell,  101 ;  The  Valley  of 
the  Loire,  215;  Southern  Russia,  George  Kennan,  289;  The  Political 
Geography  of  Egypt,  by  C.  P.  Stone,  361. 

American  Geographical  Society,  Vols.  XVI.  and  XVII.,  for  1884-85. 
—  Vol.  XVI.:  The  Growing  Power  of  the  Republic  of  Chili,  i; 
Recent  Developments  in  Central  Africa,  and  in  Congo  Valley,  89; 
Life  and  Scientific  Works  of  Guyot,  194;  Cumberland  Sound,  241; 
Norway  and  the  Midnight  Sun,  273 ;  Yukon  River,  343.  Vol.  XVII. : 
Nomenclature  in  United  States,  I  ;  How  the  Settlement  of  North 
America  has  affected  its  Wild  Animals,  17 ;  Life  and  Scenery  in  the 
Far  North,  79;  Julianshaab,  85;  War  in  the  Soudan,  125;  Rocky- 
Mountain  Railroads,  299. 

SOURCES    OF    INFORMATION    FOUND    IN    BOOKS 

This  is  rather  a  suggestive,  than  an  exhaustive,  list. 
The  names  of  many  valuable  books  are  omitted  for  lack 
of  space.  If  each  teacher  will  spend  a  few  moments  in 
writing  and  indexing  such  a  list  as  fast  as  he  reads,  he  will, 
in  a  short  time,  have  a  valuable  catalogue  of  subjects. 


SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION          433 

North  America. 

THE  HOMES  OF  AMERICA.  Mrs.  Martha  J.  Lamb.  1879. —  Roger 
Morris  House,  16;  Van  Rensselaer,  32;  Sir  William  Pepperell,  41; 
Quincy  Mansion,  48;  John  Howard  Payne,  54;  Mount  Vernon,  65; 
Gen.  Charles  Lee,  71  ;  Montgomery  Place,  102  ;  Old  Morrisania,  no; 
William  H.  Morris,  121;  Cedarmere  (Bryant),  131;  Longfellow,  134; 
Elmwood  (Lowell),  139;  Emerson,  142;  Sunnyside  (Irving),  153; 
Idlewikl  (Willis),  166;  Mrs.  Samuel  Colt,  178;  H.  Cabot  Lodge 
(Nahant),  184;  Francis  Parkman,  193;  H.  H.  Hunnewell  (Wellesley), 
197;  Charlotte  Cushman,  203;  George  E.  Waring,  jun.  (Newport), 
207;  Cedarcroft  (Taylor),  212. 

THE  GREAT  SOUTH.  Ed.  King.  1875.  —  NCW  Orleans,  28-67; 
Levee  System,  67;  Texas,  99;  St.  Louis  and  Missouri,  215-257;  Life 
on  Cotton  Plantation,  297;  Florida  and  St.  Augustine,  383-422; 
Virginia,  62  r  ;  Mammoth  Cave,  699. 

SANTO  DOMINGO.  S.  Hazard.  —  Extent,  Peculiarities,  etc.,  i; 
History,  18-132;  Toussaint,  133;  Samana,  195;  St.  Domingo  City, 
212  ;  Journey  Overland,  274-318;  Hayti,  402-441. 

NEWFOUNDLAND.     Joseph   Hatton.     1883.  —  Part  I,  History;    2, 

Physical  Geography;  3,  The  Fisheries;  4,  Agricultural   Resources; 

5,   Mineral    Resources;    6,    Population,  etc.      St.   Johns,   147;    The 

Interior,  168;  Climate,   188;    Manners  and  Customs,  222;    Caribou, 

etc.,  230;  The  Cod,  280;  Seal,  295;  Salmon,  317;  Other  Fisheries, 

323;  Coal  Areas,  414;  Population,  428;  Education,  457. 

I       THE  WEST,  FROM  THE  CENSUS  OF  1880.     Robert  P.  Porter.    1882. 

j  —The  Prairie  States,  9;  The  Territories,  79;  The  Pacific  States,  94; 

Colored  diagrams  showing  grain  and  forest  products,  metals,  etc.,  of 

this  part  of  the  United  States  compared  with  the  world,  13-68. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  NORTHERN  PACIFIC  RAILROAD.  E.  V.Smalhy. 
1883.  (Published  by  Putnam.  Very  well  illustrated  with  pictures 
from  photos.)  —  Part  I,  Historical:  Search  for  the  Source  of  the 
Mississippi,  Expeditions  of  Long  and  Pike,  5 ;  Capt.  Gray  and  Ship 
Columbia,  Discovery  of  Columbia  River,  12;  Lewis  and  Clarke 
Expedition,  20;  Fur  Traders,  etc.,  33;  Marcus  Whitman's  Heroic 
Ride,  His  Death,  46.  Part  2,  The  Northern  Pacific  Country:  Lake 
Parts,  309,  Northern  Minnesota,  321  ;  North  Dakota,  330;  Montana, 


434  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

341  ;  Idaho  and  Washington  Territory,  351  ;  Oregon,  361 ;  Portland 
and  Puget  Sounds,  370.  Part  3,  Detailed  Account  of  the  History 
Beginning,  and  Completion  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  51; 
Henry  Villard,  245. 

OUR  WILD  INDIANS.  Col.  R.  I.  Dodge.  1882.  —  Indian  Habits  in 
Different  Tribes:  Traits  and  Peculiarities,  42-67  ;  Treaty  System,  87  ; 
Religion  of  the  Indian,  96;  The  Medicine  Chief,  114;  Self-Torture, 
.146;  Funereal  Ways,  153-167;  Indian's  Heaven,  175;  Childhood  and 
Youth,  181  ;  Love-Making,  190;  Women,  200;  Skill,  250;  Clothing, 
297;  Dances,  356;  Weapons,  415;  Fighting,  435-540;  Adventures 
and  Experience  and  Anecdotes. 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  J.  H.  Patton. 
1888.  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.).  —  Coal,  10-48;  Petroleum,  108;  Iron, 
120;  Gold,  160;  Silver,  176;  Copper,  193;  Other  Metals,  211; 
Building-Stones,  276;  Salt,  308;  Medicinal  Springs,  325;  Rainfall 
and  Climate,  348;  The  Mississippi  Valley,  378;  Wheat-Belt,  395; 
Timber,  413;  Fruits,  439;  Ocean  Resources  :  Fish,  478. 

DANISH  GREENLAND.  Dr.  Rink.  —  Good  Maps,  Some  Good 
Pictures,  General  Physical  Features,  39,  64;  Climate,  56;  Resources, 
75;  Seals  and  Whales,  Fish,  ill,  131  ;  Inhabitants,  176;  Trade,  280; 
Glaciers,  357. 

THE  OPEN  POLAR  SEA.  Dr.  Hayes.  —  Sunrise,  Glacier,  127; 
Aurora  Borealis,  chap,  xvi.;  Arctic  Night,  222;  Midwinter,  192. 

THREE  YEARS  OF  ARCTIC  SERVICE.  A.  W.  Greely.  —  Vol.  I.  : 
International  Circumpolar  Stations,  19;  Greenland,  25;  Fort  Conger, 
87,  180;  Sunlight  to  Darkness,  115  ;  Scientific  Observations,  124;  Our 
First  Dark  Days  (on  the  glacier),  284;  The  Farthest  North,  347. 
Photographs:  Eskimo  in  Kayak,  i;  Musk-ox,  104;  Godthoab,  19; 
Greenland  Coast  near  Godhave,  25;  Arctic  Belles,  32  ;  Upernavik,  34, 
56;  Icebergs,  294;  Musk-calves,  363;  Photograph  of  the  Expedition 
North,  260;  Luna  Halo,  187.  Vol.  II:  Crossing  Grinnell  Land,  27; 
Great  Glacier,  40;  Polar  Ice,  43;  Retreat,  61  ;  Rescue  of  the  Seven, 
312  ;  Foxes,  Musk-ox,  etc.,  361.  Valuable  Pictures:  Block  of  Ice,  51  ; 
Split  Floeberg,  84;  Cape  Washington,  I  ;  Pyramid  Floeberg,  54. 

AMERICAN  EXPLORATIONS  IN  THE  ICE  ZONES.  J.  E.  Nourse. — 
Condensed  account  of  Kane,  Rodgers,  Hayes,  Hall,  Schwatka,  and 
De  Long. 


SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION          435 

JOURNEYS  IN  ALASKA.  E.  R.  Scidinore,  Illinois.  —  Fort  Wrangell 
and  the  Stikine,  46;  Juneau,  81  ;  Muir  Glacier,  131  ;  Sitka,  174-214; 
Education  in  Alaska,  229;  Sealskins,  300;  Totem  Poles,  53;  Pictures 
of  the  Muir  Glacier,  137,  144,  147. 

AMERICAN  PICTURES.  Kev.  S.  Manning.  (Published  by  Nelson 
&  Co.,  New  York.  Price  $3.50.  A  series,  16  vols.). —  Pictures  of 
Denver  and  Colorado,  33-60  ;  Salt  Lake,  etc.,  61-82  ;  Nevada,  83-91  ; 
San  Francisco,  93-102;  Mount  Shasta,  103;  Yosemite,  107-127; 
Yellowstone,  127-137;  Chicago,  141-149;  Niagara,  156-163;  New- 
York  City,  188-202;  Vassar  College,  209;  Capitol,  Washington,, 
223;  Court  House,  Philadelphia,  220. 

CAMPS  IN  THE  CARIBHEES.  Ober. —  Dominica,  i ;  Tropic  Sea,  3; 
Tropic  and  Humming  Birds,  12-40;  Habits  of  the  People,  73,  90; 
Deep  Woods,  130;  Bugs.  147;  Sugar  Estate,  229;  Monkeys,  263; 
Martinique,  280;  Coffee  in  the  West  Indies,  332. 

THE"  HF.AKT  OF  THE  ALLEGIIANIES;  OR,  NORTH- WESTERN 
CAROLINA.  IV.  G.  Z^/tvand  B.  S.  Grosscup.  —  Native  Mountaineers, 
15;  Natural  Resources,  167 

THE  ATLANTIC  ISLANDS  (Illustrated'].  Benjamin  — Bahamas, 
13;  Bermudas,  161  ;  Newfoundland,  146;  Prince  Edward  Island,  188 ; 
Cape  Breton  Island,  222;  Isle  of  Wight,  234;  Isles  of  Shoals,  205; 
Azores,  33;  Madeira,  94;  Teneriffe,  121  ;  Channel  Islands,  57. 

FIFTH  AVENUE  TO  ALASKA.  Ed.  Pierrepont.  —  Mormon  City  and 
the  Mormons,  17  ;  Yosemite  Valley,  58  ;  Big  Trees,  69;  San  Francisco, 
43'  9°'  97  J  Columbia  River,  I  TO,  224  ;  Victoria  to  Alaska,  141  ;  Alaska, 
149,  217;  Yellowstone  Park,  237,  249;  Livingstone  to  St.  Paul,  312. 

TRAVELS  IN  MEXICO.  F.  A.  Ober.  1884.  —  General  Description 
of  Mexico,  194;  Temperate  Zone,  197;  Ascent  from  Vera  Cruz,  201  ; 
City  of  Mexico,  221;  Mexican  People,  281,  etc.;  Chapultepec,  355; 
Profile  of  the  Country,  195;  Cold  Zone,  198;  Coffee,  205 ;  Funeral 
by  Horse-car  for  Three  Dollars,  266;  Maguey  or  Century  Plant,  342; 
Popocatapetl,  373. 

A  TRIP  TO  MANITOBA.  Mary  Fitzgibbon.  1880.  —  Winnipeg 
Indians,  40-41;  Red  River  at  Winnipeg,  45;  Cold,  6r  ;  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  100;  Mail,  117;  October,  51;  Vegetables,  52;  Breaking  up 
of  the  Ice,  69;  Flies  and  Mosquitoes,  114;  Indians  in  Ojibbeway 
Village,  185. 


436  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

DUE  SOUTH.  M.  M.  Ballon.  —  Nassau,  3;  San  Salvador,  24; 
Cuba,  a  Sugar  Plantation,  50,  236;  The  Banana,  55;  Geography  of 
Cuba,  102;  Havana,  125,  200;  Tobacco,  260. 

South  America. 

ACROSS  PATAGONIA.  Lady  Dixie.  —  Pernambuco,  TO;  Rio,  15-27; 
Sandy  Point,  33;  Ostrich-hunting,  112;  Bahia,  12  ;  Straits  of  Magellan, 
28;  Appearance  of  Patagonian  Indians,  66;  Patagonian  Cordilleras, 
174,  190-200. 

PERU.  Squier.  —  Callao,  26-31;  Lima,  34-61.  Descriptions  and 
Pictures  of  the  Ruins:  Arequipa  (picture  of  Grand  Plaza)  223;  Are- 
quipa  and  Volcano  of  Mesti,  224;  Arica  (picture),  228;  Llama  (pic- 
ture), 246;  Andes  (picture),  248;  Female  Head-dress,  262,  305;  Illam- 
pee  (the  Crown  of  the  Andes),  268;  Lake  Titicaca,  316,  327,  342,  343, 
346  ;  Cuzco,  426;  Bridge  in  the  Andes,  545  ;  Hanging  Bridge,  558,  559. 

THE  AMAZON  AND  ITS  TRIBUTARIES.  C.  Barrington  Brown. — 
Para,  i;  Up  the  Amazon, %  12;  Insect  Pests,  75;  Surveying  on  the 
Tapajos,  158;  On  the  Madeira,  327;  On  the  Rio  Negro,  360;  The 
Purus,  418. 

LA  PLATA, — THE  ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION  AND  PARAGUAY. 
Thomas  J.  Page.  (Fully  illustrated.)  —  Arrival  at  Buenos  Ayres,  35; 
Ascent  of  the  La  Plata,  64  ;  The  Town  of  Parana,  89 ;  Ascencion,  1 16 ; 
Concepcion,  136;  Indians  Fishing,  253;  Mate,  227;  The  Uruguay 
River,  318. 

BRAZIL,  THE  AMAZON,  AND  THE  COAST.  //.  H.  Smith.  —  Para, 
34;  The  River-plain,  78;  American  Farmers  on  the  Amazon,  135; 
The  Forest,  176;  Zoological  Gleanings,  205;  The  North  Shore,  257  ; 
The  Tapajos,  226;  An  Indian  Village,  370;  Social  Life  at  Rio,  451  ; 
The  Story  of  Coffee,  -511;  The  Tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  588; 
Bahia,  448. 

WILD  SCENES  IN  SOUTH-AMERICAN  LIFE,  IN  THE  LLANOS  OF 
VENEZUELA.  Don  R.  Paez.  —  The  Llanos,  26;  Wild  Horses,  74; 
Across  the  Pampas,  85;  Birds  of  Ill-omen,  163;  Plants  and  Snakes, 
202;  The  Armadillo,  24^;  The  Great  Ant-eater,  257;  Young  Croco- 
dile, 269;  Maracaibo,  388. 


SOURCES  OF   INFORMATION  AND   ILLUSTRATION          437 

Africa. 

HEART  OF  AFRICA.  Dr.  G.  Schweinfurth.  —  Vol.  I. :  Home  of  the 
Watermelon,  Cat,  and  Ass,  61  ;  Dogs  and  Animals,  91  ;  Market,  102; 
Dinka,  150;  Corpulence  of  the  Women,  256.  Vol.  II.:  Habits  of 
Niam-Niam,  I ;  King  Munza's  Wives,  48;  Colanut,  49;  The  Pigmies, 
122;  Slave-dealers,  410. 

THE  WILD  TRIBES  OF  THE  SOUDAN.  F.  L.  James.  1883.  Con- 
tains experiences  and  adventures  in  hunting  by  a  party  of  rich  Eng- 
lishmen in  the  Eastern  or  Egyptian  Soudan  (Nubia).  Describes 
the  country  and  the  people  of  the  Base -and  that  section.  It  con- 
tains several  excellent  maps  of  this  country.  Cassala,  42;  Cassala 
Natives,  54  ;  Walkat  Minstrel,  70;  Base,  86;  The  Mareb  at  Rest,  92  ; 
Lion  and  Lioness,  226. 

THE  CONGO.  H.  M.  Stanley.  (2  vols.  Harpers'.)  —  Vol.  I. :  Polit- 
ical History  of  Congo  Land,  9;  Dutch  Factories  on  Congo,  Si  ;  Boma, 
96;  New  Town  Vivi,  109,  140;  Making  a  Road  up  the  River  around 
the  Cataracts,  195;  Stanley  Pool,  281;  Signal  of  the  Gong,  339; 
Discovery  of  Lake  Leopold  II.  up  the  Kiva,  410;  Founding  of  Leo- 
poldville  near  Stanley  Pool,  357.  Vol.  II.  (much  more  valuable  and 
interesting):  Scenery  of  the  Upper  Congo,  5,  Luxuriant  Tropical 
Scenes,  91;  Skill  in  Metal-working,  in;  Enormous  Flotilla  of 
Canoes,  137;  Arab  Captives,  145;  Stanley  Falls,  155;  Binnie  ap- 
pointed, 165;  Climate  (two  chapters),  280,  312;  The  Chief  Points, 

339- 

EXPLORATION  AND  ADVENTURE  IN  AFRICA.  Charles  H.  Jones. 
(Condensed  accounts.  1875.  English  edition.)  —  Madagascar,  35; 
Barth  and  Richardson,  61  ;  Livingstone,  87  ;  Andersson,  152  ;  Magyar, 
171;  Du  Chaillu,  184;  Burton  and  Speke,  238;  Speke  and  Grant, 
267;  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  292;  Livingstone,  335;  Stanley  and  Living- 
stone, 355;  Schweinfurth,  419;  Moffat,  471. 

ACROSS  AFRICA.  Verney  L,  Cameron.  1877.  — Vol.  L:  Zanzibar, 
i  ;  Leaving,  22;  An  Arab  Caravan,  47;  Baobab-trees,  49;  Camp,  64; 
Death  of  Moffat,  71;  Tembe,  87;  Native  Fashions,  97;  Witchcraft, 
117;  The  People,  139;  Mtesa,  147;  Sickness,  161  ;  Native  Huts,  191 ; 
Ujiji,  236;  Musical  Instruments,  357.  Vol.11.:  Nyangwe,  I  ;  A  Visit 
in  State,  20;  Hostilities,  39;  Kasongo,  64;  Marriage  Ceremony,  74; 


43 8  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Customs  of  the  People,  117  ;  The  Neat  Villages  on  the  Kwanza,  196; 
Bailunda,  225;  Reaching  the  Coast,  261;  Geography  of  Africa, 
281-319. 

MODERN  EGYPTIANS.  Lane-Poole.  (Published  by  John  Murray, 
London.)  —  Vol.  I.:  Climate,  I  ;  Dress,  36;  Personal  Characteristics, 
31;  Infancy  and  Early  Education,  65;  Religion  and  Laws,  79; 
Domestic  Life,  167;  Life  of  the  Women,  191;  Common  Usages  of 
Society,  250;  Language  and  Literature,  261;  Superstitions,  281-330; 
Character,  348.  Vol.  II.;  Industry,  I  ;  Drinks  and  Smoking,  30 ;  The 
Bath,  36 ;  Games,  46;  Music,  57;  Tricks,  93;  Public  Festivals,  145; 
Death  and  Funeral  Rites,  251. 

LAND  OF  THE  PHARAOHS.  Manning.  (Well  illustrated.)  — 
Cleopatra's  Needles,  16;  Pompey's  Pillar,  16;  Sakich  and  Shadoaf, 
24;  Milometer,  42;  Tombs  of  the  Caliphs,  45  ;  Pyramids,  50;  Nile 
Boat,  67  ;  Map  of  Nile,  81  ;  Doum  Palm  (papyrus),  91  ;  Denderah, 
106;  Thebes,  109;  Rameseum,  no;  Medinet-Abou,  115;  Colossi, 
116;  Karnak,  120;  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  124;  Shishak  and  Reho- 
boam,  125;  Assouan,  140;  Suez  Canal,  177;  Sinai,  198. 

ATTRACTIONS  OF  THE  NILE.  Rev.  Alfred  C.  Smith.  (2  vols.)  — 
Vol.  I.:  Alexandria,  17;  Cairo,  32;  Mosques,  51  ;  Excursion  to  the 
Pyramids,  73;  The  Nile  Boat,  139;  Up  the  River,  162;  Keneh  and 
Ballas,  197;  Thebes,  204.  Vol.  II.:  The  Sheiks  of  the  Cataracts,  i; 
Philae,  19;  Nubian  Villages,  33;  Going  down  the  Cataracts,  73; 
Scenery  of  the  Nile,  178  ;  Birds  in  Egypt,  197. 

THROUGH  MASAI  LAND  (Mount  Kenia,  etc.)  Joseph  Thomson. 
1885.  (Sampson  Low  £  Co.,  London.  Well  illustrated.) — Taveta 
(important  place),  117;  Picture  of  Kenia,  384;  Sport,  238;  Monkeys, 
317,  Buffalo-hunting,  372;  A  Forest  Fastness,  207;  Kilimanjaro, 
163,  220,  275;  Two  Fine  Pictures  of  Kilimanjaro,  220,  275;  Spitting, 
290;  Zebra,  335. 

TUNIS.  Chevalier  de  Hesse.  1882.  (Wartegg.)  —  The  Palaces  of 
the  Bey,  33  ;  Army  and  Navy,  56;  Life  and  Customs  of  Good  Society 
in  Tunis,  68;  Life  in  a  Moorish  Harem,  81  ;  Through  the  Bazaars, 
97;  Jewish  Women,  124;  The  Environs  of  Tunis,  170;  Habits  and 
Life  of  the  Berbers,  208;  The  Bedouins,  243;  Woman's  Life,  256; 
Gabes,  272. 

FORESTRY  OF  WEST  AFRICA.    A.  Moloney.    1887.     (English  edi- 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND   ILLUSTRATION          439 

tion.)  —  Importance  of  West  Africa  to  Trade,  33  ;  Rublen,  78  ;  Coffee, 
96,  Gums  and  Resins,  118;  Dyewoods,  136;  Cotton,  140;  Indigo, 
153;  Tobacco,  169;  Fibres,  180,  Wood  and  Timber,  197. 

To  THE  CAPE  FOR  DIAMONDS.  /'.  Boyle.  —  Cape  Town  to  the 
Diamond  Fields,  44 ;  History  of  the  Diamond  Fields,  84;  Diamond 
Towns,  106;  Manner  of  Digging,  123;  How  the  People  live  there, 
138;  Riots,  180;  An  African  Farmhouse,  291;  African  Diamonds, 
357- 

Asia. 

DUE  WEST.  M.  M.  Ballon.  —  China,  81-125;  Ceylon,  125-150; 
India,  150-223;  Himalayas,  175-184;  Japan,  30-81. 

THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM.  S.  W.  Williams.  (2  vols.  Fully  illus- 
trated.)—  Vol.  I.:  General  Divisions,  i;  China  Proper,  8;  The 
Great  Wall,  29;  Eastern  Provinces,  49;  Temples  of  Heaven,  and 
Agriculture,  76;  Roads,  97  ;  Western  Provinces,  142;  Manchuria, 
185;  Mongolia,  200;  Tibet,  237;  Population,  258 ;  Laws,  380 ;  Edu- 
cation, 519;  Dress  and  Diet,  724;  Social  Life,  782.  Vol.  II.:  Horse- 
shoeing, 4;  Rice,  5;  Hemp,  n;  Silk,  32;  Science,  65;  Religion, 
188 ;  Commerce,  372,  History,  406-690.  A  comprehensive  and  ac- 
curate presentation  of  the  race  characteristics,  social  economy, 
religion,  literature  and  history  of  the  Chinese.  (Published  by 
Scribner's  Sons.) 

CHINA.  Charles  H.Eden.  —  Its  Geography,  9  ;  Physical  Aspect 
of  China  Proper,  17;  History,  28-54;  Modern  History,  56;  The 
Emperor,  94;  Prisons,  etc.,  106;  Army,  122;  Religions  of  China, 
126;  The  Great  Wall,  138;  Peking,  147  ;  Personal  Appearance  and 
Dress,  159;  Domestic  Habits,  174;  Opium  Smokers,  200;  Medical 
Profession,  238  ;  Agriculture,  254. 

INDO-CHINA,  AND  CHINA.  J.  Thomson.  (Well  illustrated.)  — 
Straits  of  Malacca,  i;  Singapore,  55;  Chinese  Tailors,  Thieves,  63 ; 
Domestic  Servants,  69  ;  Siam,  78;  Cambodia,  118;  Elephant  Travel- 
ling, 135;  Sargon,  164;  Hongkong,  179;  Chinese  Photographers, 
189;  Gambling,  197,  A  Typhoon,  214;  Tea-tasters,  237;  Canton, 
242;  Signboards,  249;  A  Beautiful  Chinese  House,  255;  Dwellings 
of  the  Poor,  263;  Boat-women,  267;  A  Chinese  Junk,  270 ;  Macao, 
275;  Fan-painting,  281;  Amoy,  289;  Formosa,  299;  Bamboo,  317; 


440  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

Beggars,  359;  Punishment  for  Stealing,  364;  A  Travelling  Black- 
smith, 385;  Shanghai,  397;  Chinese  Wheelbarrow,  409;  Hankow, 
427;  Fishing  with  Otters,  443;  A  Gorge,  Upper  Yangtsze,  454;  Silk, 
472;  Peking,  481;  Chinese  Horse-shoeing,  505;  The  Temple  of 
Heaven,  507;  One  of  the  Inner  Gates  of  Peking,  496;  Chinese 
Gentleman's  Gardens,  520. 

INDIAN  PICTURES.  Rev.  Urwick.  (Profusely  illustrated.  Pub- 
lished by  Nelson  &  Co.,  New  York.  Price  $3.50.)  —  Ceylon,  n; 
Singalese  Men  and  Women,  12,  13;  Kandy,  26;  Cocoanut-Palms,  38; 
Madras  Presidency,  41 ;  Grand  Pagoda,  40,  43,  49;  Christian  Native 
Girls,  46;  Madura,  52,  53,  56;  Madras  Surf,  85;  Gateway  at  Secun- 
dra,  155;  Railroad  Bridge,  157;  Delhi,  161 ;  Temple,  160;  Fort  by 
Shah  Jehan,  163;  Great  Mosque,  164;  Mosque  of  Koutub,  165;  Iron 
Pillar,  167;  Minor  Koutub,  168;  Sacred  Hill  Sonaghur,  191;  Brah- 
min, 91;  Bengal,  95;  Juggernaut,  94;  Maidan  Calcutta,  103;  Reli- 
gious Mendicant,  106;  Kinchinjinga,  112;  Bullock  Carriage,  124; 
Benares,  131 ;  Hindoo  Temples,  130;  Fakir,  132,  135;  Lucknow,  140; 
Howdahs  on  Elephants,  144;  Residency,  145;  Memorial  Well,  149; 
Agra  Fort,  150;  Taj  Mahal,  151;  Palace,  152;  Pearl  Mosque,  153; 
Bombay,  195. 

LAND  OF  THE  VEDA.  Rev.  William  Butler.  —  Architectural 
Magnificence  of  India  (Taj  Mahal),  101  ;  Sepoy  Rebellion,  170; 
Cawnpore  Massacre,  293;  Relief  of  Lucknow,  319;  Condition  of 
WTomen  under  Hindoo  Law,  468. 

MALACCA,  INDO-CHINA,  AND  CHINA.  J.  Thomson.  —  Siam, 
Buddhist  Temples  and  Priests,  78;. Hong  Kong,  179;  Canton,  242; 
Formosa,  300;  Upper  Yangtsze  Hankow,  Gorges,  397. 

THE  HINDOOS  AS  THEY  ARE.  S.  C.Bose.  —  The  Hindoo  House- 
hold, i  ;  Birth  of  the  Hindoo,  22;  Schoolboy,  30;  Hindoo  Girl,  35; 
Marriage  Ceremonies,  41 ;  Doorga  Poojah  Festival,  93;  Caste,  165; 
A  Brahmin,  180;  Native  Physician,  209;  Hindoo  Women,  216} 
Hindoo  Widows,  237;  Sickness  and  Death,  246;  Suttee,  272. 

THE  MIKADO'S  EMPIRE.  Grijps. — Jinrikisha,  334;  Avenue 
in  Tokio,  395 ;  Life  in  Japanese  Homes,  435 ;  Servants,  430 ;  A 
Wedding  Party,  438;  Father  and  Children,  450;  Children's 
Games  and  Sports,  452;  A  Common  House,  532;  The  Position  of 
Women,  551. 


SOURCES  OF   INFORMATION   AND   ILLUSTRATION           441 

UNBEATEN  TRACKS  IN  JAPAN.  Miss  Bird.  —  Customs  and  Dress, 
33,  151;  Worship  and  Buddhism,  64,  212;  A  Japanese  House,  107; 
Domestic  Life,  131;  Evening  Employments,  141;  The  Shops,  225; 
Food,  237;  A  Japanese  Doctor,  274;  A  Wedding  Ceremony,  323, 
Children's  Games,  372  ;  A  Japanese  School,  132. 

COREA,  THE  HERMIT  NATION.  Griffis. —  Social  Life  (Woman 
and  Family),  244;  Child-Life,  256;  Housekeeping  and  Costume,  262; 
Out-door  Life,  284;  Education  and  Culture,  337. 

TURKKSTAN.  E.  Schuyler.  (2  vols.  Illustrated.)  — The  Steppe,  i  • 
Tashkent,  76;  Mussulman  Life,  118;  The  Bazaars  and  Trade,  173; 
Samarkand,  225;  Street  in  Tashkent,  101  ;  Women  of  Samarkand, 
266;  Kirghiz  Women,  36. 

CEYLON.  J.  Ferguson.  —  Extent  and  Topographical  Features,  8  ; 
Progress  of  Seventy  Years,  24;  Products,  38;  Attractions  for  the 
Traveller,  103;  A  Cocoanut  Plantation,  38. 

THROUGH  PERSIA.  Arnold.  —  A  Persian  Village,  185;  Teheran, 
212;  Kashan,  287;  Ispahan,  309. 


Europe. 

SPANISH  VISTAS.  Lathrop. —  Bull  Fights,  26-32;  Toledo,  34-69; 
Cordova,  70-102;  Seville,  103-117;  Mediterranean  Ports,  152;  Hints 
to  Travellers,  186;  Escorial,  25. 

SEVEN  SPANISH  CITIES.  E.  E.  Hale. — Cordova,  40;  Seville,  56; 
Palos  and  Columbus,  71;  Cadiz  and  Malaga,  80;  Granada  and 
Alhambra,  93;  Madrid,  218,  155;  Spanish  Politics,  182,  166;  Toledo, 
206;  Out-doors  Life,  228;  Northward,  263,  279. 

OVER  THE  OCEAN.  Curtis  Guild. —  Hints  to  Tourists,  i;  The 
Emerald  Isle,  I  r  ;  Liverpool,  28 ;  Edinburgh,  47 ;  Glasgow,  80 ; 
York,  89;  Kenihvorth,  116;  Stratford,  118;  Oxford,  138;  London, 
152;  Paris,  309;  Waterloo,  314:  Cologne,  326;  Up  the  Rhine,  337; 
Strasburg  Cathedral,  364;  Switzerland,  373;  Lake  Lucerne,  385; 
Geneva,  416;  Chamouny,  420;  Italy,  436. 

BRITONS  AND  MUSCOVITES.  Curtis  Guild.  1888.  —  London  Hotels, 
13;  Ripon  and  Fountains  Abbey,  53;  Furness  Abbey,  65;  Old 
Boston,  73;  Berlin,  83;  St.  Petersburg,  95-121;  Moscow,  141; 
Siberian  Exiles,  181  ;  Nijni  Novgorod,  193-230, 


44 2  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

LAND  OF  THE  MIDNIGHT  SUN,  —  SWEDEN,  NORWAY,  LAPLAND, 
AND  FINLAND.  Paul  B.  Du  Chaillu.  (2  vols.  Illustrated.)  —  Vol.  I. . 
Midnight  Sun,  48,  57,  61,  63,  70,  107  ;  Vegetation  in  the  Arctic  Circle, 
149;  Seasons  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  153;  Stockholm,  13;  Baltic 
Sea,  37 ;  Lapland  Customs,  122;  Fjords,  219,  252;  Christiana,  297, 
Mountain-houses,  280.  Vol.  II.:  Reindeer,  69,  72,  86,  104,  icS; 
Home-life,  66;  Winter  Costumes,  69;  A  Lapp  Encampment,  78; 
Lapp  Dogs,  81  ;  Climate,  135;  Herring,  146;  Laplanders,  169; 
Church,  226,  373^,459;  Marriage,  234;  Houses,  271 ;  Mountain  Scene- 
ry, 302 ;  Schools,  378. 

RUSSIA.  D.  M.  Wallace.  (2  vols.)  —  Vol.  L:  Travelling  in  Russia, 
I  ;  The  Village  Priest,  76;  A  Village  Doctor,  103;  A  Peasant  Family, 
126;  The  Peasantry  of  the  North,  144;  Tartar  Villages,  227;  The 
Towns,  250;  Novgorod,  279;  The  Nobles,  411;  Social  Classes, 
436.  Vol.  II.:  The  Pastoral  Tribes  of  the  Steppes,  30;  The  Cos- 
sacks,  71;  St.  Petersburg,  114;  Moscow,  149;  The  Serfs,  234. 

EUROPEAN  BREEZES.  Pitman.  —  German  Life,  30;  Street-Sights, 
39;  Americans  in  Hanover,  45;  German  Opera,  49;  Sundays  on  the 
Continent,  55;  The  Rhine,  59;  Jews,  64;  Heidelberg,  81  ;  A  German 
Spa,  91;  German  Domestic  Ways,  101 ;  Table  d'Hote,  104;  Vienna, 
121 ;  Austrian  Women,  134;  The  Blue  Danube,  157;  Budapest,  179; 
Hungarian  Manners  and  Ways,  194;  Hungarian  Villages,  226;  The 
Magyars,  254;  Switzerland,  272. 

ITALIAN  PICTURES.  Samuel  Manning.  —  The  Campagna,  19,26, 
27  ;  Bird's  Eye  View  of  Rome,  28  ;  Temple  of  Minerva,  33  ;  On  the 
Appian  Way,  39;  Forum,  41;  Pantheon,  61  ;  Catacombs,  71;  St. 
Peter's,  79;  Naples,  115;  Pompeii,  138;  Florence,  160;  Genoa,  187; 
Venice,  193. 

GERMAN  FATHERLAND.  S.  G.  Green.  (Fully  illustrated.)  —  Up 
the  Rhine,  11  ;  Drachenfels,  12;  On  the  Mosel,  17;  Worms,  27; 
Heidelberg,  33  ;  Black  Forest,  68;  Heligoland,  56;  Canal  at  Ham- 
burg, 57;  Hanover,  68;  Berlin,  71;  Vienna,  116;  Tyrol,  143; 
Nuremberg,  188 ;  Frankfort,  203. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND   ILLUSTRATION          443 

Miscellaneous. 

KINGDOM  OF  HAWAII.  C.  F.  G.  dimming.  (2  vols.  Well  illus- 
trated.)—  Vol.  I.:  Honolulu,  50;  Hilo,  73;  A  Sugar  Plantation, 
112,  273;  Kilauea  Crater,  125;  Descent  of  the  Crater,  155;  Coast 
of  Hawaii,  245.  Vol.  II.:  Hawaiian  Morals,  74;  History,  115; 
Account  of  the  Great  Eruption  in  1880. 

CORAL  LANDS.  H.S.  Cooper.  (Photos.)  —  Vol. I. :  The  Fiji  Group, 
18;  Levuka,  61  ;  Fiji  Life,  116;  Birds,  etc.,  194;  Vegetation,  263.  Vol. 
II.:  Navigator's  Islands,  i;  Manners  and  Customs  in  Samoa,  n; 
The  South-Sea  Kings,  48;  Pearl-fishing,  79;  Turtle  and  Sponge  Fish- 
ing, 126;  The  Solomon  Islands,  278;  The  Society  Islands,  282. 

ISLAND  LIFE.  Wallace.  (Supplement  to  Geographical  Distribu- 
tion of  Animals.)  —  Remarkable  Contrasts  in  the  Distribution  of 
Animals,  3;  Changes  of  Land  and  Sea,  8r  ;  Life  on  the  Azores,  238  ; 
Life  on  the  Sandwich  Islands,  298;  Life  on  the  Japan  Islands,  363; 
Life  in  New  Zealand,  457. 

THE  NEW  ASTRONOMY.  S.  P.  Langley,  1888.  (Illustrated.)  — 
Spots  on  the  Sun,  I ;  The  Sun's  Surroundings,  35;  The  Sun's  Energy, 
70;  The  Planets  and  the  Moon,  117;  Meteors,  175;  The  Comets, 
199;  The  Stars,  221. 

WEATHER.  R.  Abercromby.  *  (International  Scientific  Series. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co,  1887.  Illustrated.)  —  Weather  Prognostics,  16; 
Clouds,  71  ;  Isobars,  125;  Cyclones  and  Anticyclones,  138;  Changes 
of  Weather,  151 ;  Wind  and  Calm,  183;  Heat  and  Cold,  204;  Squalls 
and  Thunderstorms,  234;  Whirlwinds  and  Tornadoes,  263;  Local 
Variation  of  Weather,  280;  Diurnal  Variation  of  Weather,  294; 
Types  and  Spells  of  Weather,  327  ;  Forecasting,  390. 

Poems  of  Places. 

The  collection  of  poems  made  by  the  poet  Longfellow, 
and  called  Poems  of  Places  (thirty-one  volumes,  published 
by  Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co.;  price  $1.00  a  volume),  is  a 
better  book  for  children  to  study  than  some  geographical 
textbooks.  A  poem  which  contains  a  little  story  or  inci- 
dent, like  Abdel-Hassan,  or  St.  John  (1647)  )  one  wmcn  is 


444  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN   GEOGRAPHY 

strongly  descriptive,  like  The  Lord's- Day  Gale,  or  Coral 
Islands ;  or  one  which  has  a  little  humor  in  it,  like  Robert 
Southey's  March  to  Moscow,  —  will  arouse  much  interest,  if 
read  at  the  proper  time  by  the  teacher,  or,  better,  by  some 
pupil. 

There  is,  of  course,  not  very  much  time  for  "  poetical 
geography ;  "  but  some  of  these  poems,  like  Kilimanjaro , 
or  The  Revenge,  are  most  excellent  for  declamations  and 
readings,  and  can  thus  be  utilized  without  any  extra  time. 
Many  of  these  poems  refer  to  historical  themes. 

An  hour's  study  on  the  localities  mentioned  in  the  table 
of  contents  given  in  any  volume  named  above,  would  be 
much  more  profitable,  in  our  judgment,  than  finding  the 
answer  to  most  questions  in  a  textbook. 

The  poets  who  have  written  the  largest  number  of 
descriptive  poems,  and  such  as  refer  to  noted  places,  are,  — 

Longfellow,  Whittier,  B.  Taylor,  Byron,  Arnold,  Southey, 
R.  Browning,  Trench,  Scott,  Felicia  Hemans,  Bryant, 
Cowper,  Sigourney,  Tennyson. 

To  show  the  style  and  appropriateness  of  these  poems, 
two  are  given  below,  followed  by  a  list  of  the  best  in  each 
volume. 

SIBKRTA.  By  James  C.  Mangon.  From  Poems  of  Places,  vol. 
xx.,  p.  215. 

In  Siberia's  wastes 

The  ice-wind's  breath 
Woundeth  like  the  toothed  steel. 
Lost  Siberia  doth  reveal 

Only  blight  and  death. 

Elight  and  death  alone. 

No  summer  shines, 
Night  is  interblent  with  day. 
In  Siberia's  wastes  alway 

The  blood  blackens,  the  heart  pines. 


SOURCES  OF   INFORMATION  AND   ILLUSTRATION          445 

In  Siberia's  wastes 

No  tears  are  shed, 
For  they  freeze  within  the  brain. 
Naught  is  felt  but  dullest  pain, 

Pain  acute,  yet  dead. 

Pain  as  in  a  dream, 

When  years  go  by 
Funeral-paced,  yet  fugitive; 
When  man  lives,  and  doth  not  live, 

Doth  not  live —  nor  die. 

In  Siberia's  wastes 

Are  sands  and  rocks. 
Nothing  blooms  of  green  or  soft; 
But  the  snow-peaks  rise  aloft, 

And  the  gaunt  ice -blocks. 

And  the  exile  then 

Is  one  with  those. 
They  are  past,  and  he  is  past; 
For  the  sands  are  in  his  heart, 

And  the  killing  snows. 

Therefore  in  those  wastes 

None  curseth  czar: 
Each  man's  tongue  is  cloven 
By  the  north  blast,  who  heweth  nigh 

With  sharp  scymitar. 

And  such  doom  dares 

Till,  hunger-gnawn  and  cold-slain, 
He  at  length  sinks  there; 
Yet  scarce  more  a  corpse  than  ere 

His  last  breath  was  drawn. 

THE    COMING  OF   MONT   BLANC.      By  //.  Morford.    Poems  of 
Places^  vol.  x.,  p.  255. 

Running  along  the  high  level 

Of  Jura,  wild  and  hard, 

With  the  charms  of  the  great  Rhone  Valley  yet  lingering  in  my  eyes, 
I  heard  the  porter  out  calling 

The  station-name  "  Bellegarde!  " 
And  then,  in  a  moment  later,  I  saw  wedded  earth  and  skies. 


446  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

A  snow-bank  reached  to  heaven, 

And  the  clouds  below  its  crown 

Seemed  shrinking  off  from  its  summit  in  a  natural  fear  and  awe; 
Great  feathery  swales  suggesting 

The  lightness  of  eider-down, 
And  held  in  that  air-solution  by  nature's  chemical  law. 

And  there,  but  a  little  eastward, 

Slim  needles,  greenly  white, 

Thrust  up  through  the  higher  strata  their  points  so  fatal' keen, 
Catching  and  breaking  and  changing 

The  wonderful  play  of  light, 
But  never  losing  that  radiance  denied  to  the  lowlands  mean. 

The  great  white  Alps,  and  their  monarch,  — 

Mont  Blanc,  of  the  royal  fame, — 

And  the  Aiguillettes  resplendent,  that  hem  the  robes  of  a  king: 
These  were  the  long-sought  glories 

That  to  me  that  moment  came; 
And  the  hour  must  be  far,  far  distant,  an  answering  thrill  to  bring, 

It  seemed  as  if  toil  and  danger, 

As  if  absence  and  pain  and  grief, 

In  that  one  supremest  moment  were  a  thousand  times  repaid; 
Like  slaking  the  drouth  of  the  thirsty, 

And  giving  the  sick  relief, 
And  allowing  the  tired  to  slumber  in  the  cool  and  pleasant  shade. 

"  Mont  Blanc!  "  .1  cried;   I  remember 

How  calmer  companions  stared, 

And  looked  from  the  carriage  window  to  see  me  insanely  leap: 
"  Mont  Blanc!   thy  throne,  Almighty! 

And  thine  eye  its  brow  has  dared, 
As  we  have  so  often  dreamed  in  our  broken  prophetic  sleep." 

"  How  far  away?     Is  it  twenty, 

Is  it  thirty,  or  fifty  miles?  " 

And  a  pleasant  voice  makes  answer,  of  a  Swiss  beside  us  there, 
While  her  face  is  lit  with  the  calmest 

Of  sweet,  compassionate  smiles, 
"  'Tis  an  hundred  miles  from  here  the  great  mountain  heaves  in  air.' 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION          447 

An  hundred  miles !     So  reach  us 

At  a  distance  beggaring  thought, 

The  great  deeds  that  the  wise  and  the  mighty  have  done  to  exalt  our  race. 
So  the  might  of  the  art  creative, 

And  the  marvels  it  has  wrought, 
Outstrip  the  thought  that  is  laggard,  and  make  vassals  of  time  and  space. 

Since  then,  by  sunlight,  by  moonlight, 

At  soft  eve,  and  radiant  morn, 

I  have  watched  the  Alpine  monarch,  and  studied  his  smile  and  frown; 
Have  seen  moraine  and  glacier, 

Where  ice-bound  rivers  are  born, 
And  passed  the  spot  where  the  avalanche  comes  crashing  and  thundering  down. 

But  he  gives  me  no  hour  exultant, 

Like  that  when  I  seemed  to  choke, 

On  the  wooded  heights  of  Jura,  with  a  pleasure  akin  to  pain,  — 
When  the  wild  white  Alpine  glory 

To  my  waiting  spirit  spoke; 
And  the  scene  was  forever  pictured  on  the  nerves  of  heart  and  brain. 

Important  Poems  in  "  Poems  of  Places." 

North  America. 

New  England.  —  Vol.  XXV. :  Voyage  of  Columbus,  Samuel  Rogers, 
12;  Our  Aborigines,  L.  H.  Sigourney,  23;  The  Old  Continentals, 
Anon,  33;  Snowbound,  Wliittier,  52  ;  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker- 
Hill  Battle,  Holmes,  107;  The  Dorchester  Giant,  Holmes,  118;  The 
Washington  Elm  (Cambridge),  Lowell,  126;  The  Cambridge  Church- 
yard, Holmes,  129;  The  Village  Blacksmith,  Longfellow,  136;  The 
Bridge,  Longfellow,  138;  The  Garrison  of  Cape  Ann,  Whittier,  146; 
To  the  River  Charles,  Longfelknv,  158;  Concord  Fight,  Emerson, 
167  ;  The  Captain's  Drum  (Engfield),  B.  F.  Taylor,  197  ;  The  Wreck 
of  the  Hesperus,  Longfellow,  201  ;  The  Phantom  Boat,  E.  N.  Gunni- 
son,  204;  The  Wreck  of  Ri vermouth  (Hampton),  Whittier,  218; 
Abraham  Davenport  (Hartford),  Whittier,  230;  Little  Jerry,  the 
Miller  (Highgate,  Vt),  Saxe,  242  ;  The  Franklin  Mansion  (Hopkinton, 
Mass.),  Holmes,  248;  The  Wreck  of  the  Pocahontas,  Celia  Thaxter, 
265.  Vol.  XXVI. :  Mount  Kearsarge,  Edna  D.  Proctor,  3  ;  The  Birds 
of  Killingworth,  Longfellow,  7;  Skipper  Ireson's  Ride  (Marblehead), 


448  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Whittier,  21;  By  the  Seashore  (Marblehead),  J.  W.  Chadwick,  30; 
The  Skeleton  in  Armor  (Newport),  Longfellow,  125;  My  Mountain 
(Pemigewasset,  N.H.),  Lucy  Larcom,  156;  Prayer  of  Agassiz 
(Penikese),  Whittier,  160;  Penikese,  Thomas  G.  Appleton,  164;  Lady 
Wentworth  (Portsmouth),  Longfellow,  206;  The  Letter  of  Marque 
(Shoal  of  Georges),  C.  F.  Orne,  248. 

Middle  States.  — Vol.  XXVII. :  Greenwood,  S.  M.  Hagerman,  36; 
Horicon  (Lake  George),  H.  Morford,  85;  Lake  George,  A.  C.  Coxe, 
86;  Hudson  River,  Thos.  W.  Parsons,  104;  Avery  (Niagara  Falls), 
William  D.  Howells,  163;  West  Point,  H.  F.  Tuckerman,  262. 

Southern  States,  — Vol.  XXVIII. :  My  Maryland,  J.  R.  Randall,  3; 
The  Slave  in  the  Dismal  Swamp,  Longfellow,  67 ;  The  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  A.  Chambers  Ketchum,  120;  The  Burial  of  the  Dane  (Gulf 
of  Mexico),  H.  H.  Browne!!,  122  ;  The  Mount  Burial  (Mount  Mitchell, 
N.C.),  L.  H.  Sigourney,  140;  Mount  Vernon  (Virginia),  1786,  D. 
Humphreys,  145;  Kit  Carson's  Ride  (the  Plains  of  Texas),  J.  Miller, 
263. 

Western  States.  —  Vol.  XXIX.  :  The  Minnesota  Water-shed, 
Holmes,  31 ;  The  Canon,  J.  Miller,  36;  Dows  Flat  (California),  Bret 
Harte,  73;  Plain  Language  from  Truthful  James,  Bret  Harte,  240; 
The  Four  Lakes  of  Madison  (Wisconsin),* Longfellow,  91;  Lake 
Michigan,  Kate  Harrington,  104;  On  the  Shores  of  the  Tennessee, 
244;  Minnehaha  (the  Falls),  Longfellow,  109;  Memphis,  J.  T.  Trow- 
bridge,  100. 

British  America.  —  Vol.  XXX.  :  Grande  Pre  (Nova  Scotia), 
Longfellow,  30;  D'Anville's  Fleet  (Halifax),  Hunter  Duvar,  34;  The 
Montmorency  Waterfall,  L.  E.  Landon,  45;  Mount  Royal  (Montreal), 
Charles  Sangster,  46;  The  Lord's-Day  Gale,  Ed.  C.  Stedman,  91; 
Rapids  of  the  Lachine,  Charles  Sangster,  82. 

Mexico,  South  America,  etc.  —  Vol.  XXX.:  El  Palo  Santo,  Fr. 
Fuller  Victor,  122;  Monterey,  Charles  F.  Hoffman,  143;  Popocatapetl, 
William  PL  Lythe,  150;  Crossing  the  Line  (Ecuador)  C.  F  Botes, 
206;  The  Damsel  of  Peru,  Bryant,  220;  Rio  Janeiro  (Brazil),  J.  D. 
Lang,  226;  Gan-Eden,  Queen  of  the  Antilles  (Cuba),  Mary  B.  Clarke, 
236;  El  Paseo  (Havana),  Thomas  Durfee,  252. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION         449 

Africa. 

Vol.  XXIV.  —  Africa,  Maria  Lowell,  17  ;  The  African  Chief,  Bryant, 
14;  The  Egyptian  Princess,  Ed.  Arnold,  72;  To  an  Egyptian  Mummy, 
H.  Smith,  81  ;  The  Sphinx  and  the  Pyramids,  George  Wilson,  112; 
Marguerite  of  France,  Felicia  Hemans,  [40;  Kilimandjaro,  B.  Taylor, 
241;  The  Lion  Hunt,  Thomas  Pringle,  234;  Thebes,  S.  G.  W. 
Benjamin,  196. 

Asia. 

Vol.  XXII.  —  Santa  Filomena  (Scutari),  Longfellow,  76;  Vision 
of  Belshazzar,  Byron,  118;  The  Leap  of  Roushan  Beg,  Longfellow, 
161 ;  The  Arab  to  the  Palm,  B.  Taylor,  177;  Abdel-Hassan,  Anon., 
201;  The  Date-Garden  of  the  Desert,  George  B.  Griffith,  214;  The 
Rock  in  El  Ghor  (Petra),  Whittier,  219  ;  Clyte,  Walter  Thornbury, 
20.  Vol.  XXIII. :  Hindoostan,  W.  M.  Praed,  70;  The  Banian-tree, 
Robert  Southey,  76 ;  The  Palm-tree,  Whittier,  67 ;  The  Taj  Mahal, 
Anon.,  85  ;  The  Vale  of  Cashmere,  Thomas  Moore,  98  ;  The  Pipes  of 
Lucknow,  Whittier,  163;  The  White  Elephant,  H.  Heine,  187;  The 
Porcelain  Tower  (Nankin)  Longfellow,  215;  Japan,  Longfellow,  239. 
Vol.  XXI. :  the  Mosque,  Lord  Houghton,9;  Allah,  S.  A.  Mahlmame, 
13;  The  Three  Kings,  Longfellow,  67;  Nebo,  Fr.  Freiligrath,  201; 
The  Burial  of  Moses,  C.  F.  Alexander,  207 ;  The  Cities  of  the  Plain, 
Whittier,  228. 

Europe. 

Austria. — Vol.  XVI.:  Bregenz,  A.  A.  Proctor,  192. 

Belgium.  —  Vol.  XV.:  The  Great  Bell  Roland  (Ghent),  Tilton, 
186;  The  Field  of  Waterloo,  Scott,  208. 

Denmark. — Vol.  XV. :  From  Ghent  to  Aix,  R.  Browning,  173; 
Bruges,  Longfellow,  147. 

France.  —  Vol.  X. :  France,  O.  Goldsmith,  r ;  Aries,  F.  Mistral,  37  ; 
The  Descent  of  the  Rhone,  R.  C.  Trench,  58. 

Great  Britain.  —  Vol.  II.:  The  Wishing  Gate  (Grasmere),  Words- 
worth, 17;  Wordsworth's  Grave,  James  Payn,  22;  The  School- 
mistress, William  Shenstone,  32  ;  Kenilworth,  The  Ivy  of,  F.  Hemans, 
67  ;  The  High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire,  Jean  Ingelow,  90; 
The  Mersey  (Liverpool),  B.  R.  Parker,  105  ;  Sir  Richard  Whittington, 


450  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Anon.,  131;  Poets'  Corner  (London),  R.  Leighton,  143;  St.  James 
Street,  Fr.  Locke,  163;  Temple  Bar,  W.  Thornbury,  168;  Tavern 
Signs,  British  Apollo,  172;  Misadventures  at  Margate,  R.  H.  Barham, 
210.  Vol.  III. :  The  Well  of  St.  Keyne,  Southey,  113;  Robin  Hood, 
M.  Drayton,  143;  Stratford-on-Avon  at  Night,  H.  G.  Bell,  195;  In 
Swanage  Bay,  D.  M.  M.  Craik,  214;  Thames,  I.  C.  Kncx,  236;  Loss 
of  the  Royal  George,  Cowper,  168. 

Scotland.  —  Vol.  VI.:  Caledonia,  Scott,  I  ;  Tarn  o'  Shanter,  Burns, 
33;  Bannockburn,  Burns,  73;  Ben  Lomond,  Campbell,  83;  Edin- 
burgh, Burns,  201. 

Germany.  —  Vol.  XVII.:  Bingen,  Mrs.  Norton,  46;  The  Breslau 
Bell  Founder,  W.  Miiller,  65;  The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  Robert 
Browning,  IIT;  Nuremberg,  Longfellow,  241. 

Italy.  —  Vol.  XI.  :  Farewell  to  Italy,  Anna  Jameson,  47  ;  Amain", 
Longfellow,  54;  Old  Pictures  in  Florence,  Robert  Browning,  154; 
Naples,  Samuel  Rogers,  259.  Vol.  XII.:  Pisa,  Thomas  W.  Parsons, 
37;  The  City  of  My  Love  (Rome),  J.  W.  Howe,  117;  Horatius  at 
at  the  Bridge,  Macaulay,  130:  The  Roman  Carnival,  Charles  P. 
Cranch,  182. 

Russia.  —  Vol.  XX. :  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  Tennyson  ;  The 
March  to  Moscow,  Robert  Southey,  78;  A  Thousand  Years  (Nov- 
gorod), Bayard  Taylor,  102;  The  Volga,  Edna  Dean  Proctor,  153; 
A  Song  of  the  Camp  (Sevastopol),  Bayard  Taylor,  118;  America  to 
Russia,  O.  \V.  Holmes,  I. 

Spain  (and  Portugal}.  —  Vols.  XIV.  and  XV. :  The  Earthquake  of 
Lisbon,  1755,  Holmes,  107;  Castles  in  Spain,  Longfellow,  25; 
Gibralter,  Miss  L.  E.  Landon,  134;  The  Alhambra,  Felicia  Hemans, 
163;  Columbus  before  the  University  of  Salamanca,  L.  H.  Sigourney, 
225;  The  Bull  Fight,  Byron,  19. 

Switzerland.  —  Vol.  XVI.:  My  Alpenstock,  H.  G.  Bell,  12  ;  Berne, 
M.  Arnold,  36;  Lake  Leman  and  Chillon,  H.  Morford,  44;  Pilatus 
Mount,  E.  Arnold,  116;  Song  of  St.  Bernard,  T.  B.  Read,  126;  The 
Death  of  Winkelried,  W.  Thornbury,  154. 


SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  AND   ILLUSTRATION          451 


Oceanica. 

Vol.  XXXI.  —  Widderin's  Race  (Australia),  P.  H.  Hayne,  18; 
Pitcairn's  Island,  Bryant,  65;  The  Revenge  (Azores),  Tennyson,  73; 
'  Teneriffe,  S.  G.  W.  Benjamin,  89 ;  Coral  Islands,  Ph.  G.  Hamer- 
ton,  99;  The  Coral  Grove,  James  G.  Percival,  105;  The  Exhumation 
of  Napoleon,  W.  W.  Story;  The  flamingo,  S.  G.  W.  Benjamin,  135; 
The  Arctic  Lover,  Bryant,  143;  Seaweed,  Longfellow,  168;  The  Ship 
of  the  Dead,  Longfellow,  170;  The  Sea,  B.  W.  Procter,  191;  The 
Flying  Dutchman,  J.  B.  O'Reilly,  226 ;  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert, 
Longfellow,  247 ;  The  Beach  at  Hilo  Bay,  F.  Coan,  282. 

Place-Names. 

Children  are  usually  interested  in  knowing  the  meaning 
of  names,  especially  if  there  is  some  incident,  something 
humorous,  or  some  interesting  historical  event,  connected 
therewith.  For  instance,  a  class  is  always  pleased  to  learn 
that  Azores  means  a  hawk,  and  was  so  named  because  these 
birds  once  abounded  on  these  islands ;  Maldives  means 
one  thousand  islands,  Laccadives  ten  thoiisand  islands,  on 
account  of  the  many  islands  in  that  vicinity ;  Pernambuco 
means  the  mouth  of  hell,  on  account  of  the  violent  harbor; 
the  Philippine  Isles  are  named  after  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ; 
Cape  Verde,  the  Green  Cape,  was  so  named  by  Spanish 
sailors,  on  seeing  the  enormous  baobab- trees  crowning  its 
summit ;  Michigan  means  the  weir,  or  fish-trap,  from  its 
shape  ;  and  Bab-el-Mandeb  signifies  the  Gate  of  Tears.,  on 
account  of  the  numerous  shipwrecks  at  that  point. 

If  the  teacher  will  spend  a  few  moments  in  explaining  a 
few  common  prefixes  and  suffixes,  such  as  burg  (a  castle), 
caster  (a  fortress  or  town),  dam  (a  town),  dorf  (a  village), 
polis  (a  city),  sk  (a  river),  stan  (a  country),  and  wich  (a 


452  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

town),   the   children  will   soon    be   able   to   discover  the 
meaning  of  many  geographical  names. 

Teachers  ought  to  take  pleasure  in  calling  the  attention  of 
the  class  orally  to  the  meaning  of  one  word,  at  least,  in 
every  country ;  and  in  now  and  then  writing  a  few  words 
on  the  board  for  this  purpose.  Helps  will  be  found  in 
Warren's  Common  School  Geography,  Blackie's  Etymological 
Derivations  of  Geography,  and  Taylor's  Worlds  and  Places. 


CHAPTER   XX 

GEOGRAPHICAL  BOOKS 


READING  maketh  a  full  man.     He  that  reads  little,  needs  much 
cunning  to  make  him  seem  to  know  that  which  he  does  not.  —  Bacon. 

CHILDREN  naturally  love  that  which  is  good  and  pure  in  literature. 
The  taste  for  what  is  unclean,  is  an  acquired  taste.  —  Balliet. 

453 


CHAPTER   XX 
GEOGRAPHICAL   BOOKS 

TEACHER'S  LIBRARY  —  GEOGRAPHICAL  READERS  —  SCIENCE  FOR  CHILDREN  —  TRAVELS 
FOR  CHILDREN  —  SCIENCE  FOR  ADULTS — TRAVELS  FOR  ADULTS  — BOOKS  IN  PAPER 

COVERS— GEOGRAPHICAL  STORIES   AND   NOVELS  —  FRENCH   AND  GERMAN  BOOKS  — 
REFERENCE  BOOKS  —  COSTLY   ILLUSTRATED    BOOKS 

THE  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  in  this  list  no 
worthless  books.  These  books  have  all  been  examined  ; 
and  although  there  is  a  great  difference  in  their  value,  yet 
each  volume  will  prove  to  be,  we  believe,  a  helper  to  the 
teacher  searching  for  something  to  give  new  interest  to 
the  geographical  recitation. 

The  best  books  for  the  teacher  and  for  his  work  in  the 
schoolroom,  not  including  the  large  and  "  costly  illustrated 
works  "  given  in  a  separate  list,  are  placed  first,  in  each 
case,  under  the  various  countries  ;  the  less  valuable  books 
are  alphabetically  arranged  after  the  rule  ( ).  An  ex- 
tended list  is  given,  many  more  than  any  teacher  needs  to 
read,  so  that  some  one  book  at  least  may  be  found  in  the 
teacher's  town  library. 

All  the  books  are  either  of  very  recent  publication,  or  still 
considered  the  standard  works  on  that  subject.  Books  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  years  of  age  are  of  little  comparative  value 
in  travel  or  in  geography.  Bayard  Taylor's  books  can  no 
longer  stand  at  the  head. 

455 


456  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

A  few  comments  have  been  added  where  needed.  Books 
marked  with  an  asterisk  are  analyzed  under  Sources  of 
Information,  in  the  previous  chapter. 

ONE   THOUSAND   BOOKS   ON    GEOGRAPHY 

THE  TEACHER'S  GEOGRAPHICAL  LIBRARY 

The  First  Books  to  Purchase. 
(*)  For  Work  in  Advanced  Classes. 

Ritter's  Comparative  Geography.  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg,  &  Co, 
Price  $1.25. 

Guyot's  Earth -and  Man.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     Price  $1.75. 

Johnston's  Physical  and  Descriptive  Geography.  Edward  Stan- 
ford, London.  For  sale  by  Willard  Small,  Boston.  Price  $2.75. 

Guyot's  Physical  Geography.  Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor,  &  Co. 
Price  #1.60. 

Johonnot's  Geographical  Reader.    D.  Appleton  &  Co.    Price  $1.20. 

Prime's  Around  the  World.     Harper  &  Bros.     Price  $3.00. 

Crocker's  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography.  Boston  School 
Supply  Co.  Price  $0.60. 

Patton's  Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States.  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.  Price  $3.00. 

Frye's  Geography  and  Sand  Modelling.  Bay  State  Publishing 
Company,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.  Price  $1.00. 

Science  Primers:  Astronomy,  Geography.  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Price  $0.45. 

Jackson's  Astronomical  Geography.     Heath  &  Co.  Price  $0.30. 

Guyot's  Common  School  Geography.  Teacher's  Edition,  with 
Teacher's  Guide.  Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor,  &  Co.  Price  $1.25. 

Barnes's,  Swinton's,  Harper's,  Appletons',  McNally's,  Warren's, 
Common  School  Geographies. 

(£)  For  Work  in  Lower  Classes. 

Geikie's  Physical  Geography.     Macmillan  &  Co.     Price  $1.10. 
Brown's  Manual  of  Commerce.     Bill,  Nichols,  &  Co.     Price  $1.25. 
Geographical  Reader.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     Price  $0.60. 
Andrews's  Seven  Little  Sisters,  who  live  on  the  Round  Ball  that 
floats  in  the  Air.     Lee  &  Shepard.     Price  $0.50. 


READERS,   AND  SCIENCE  FOR  CHILDREN  457 

Geikie's  Teaching  of  Geography.     Macmillan  &  Co.     Price  $0.60. 

Carver's  How  to  Teach  Geography.  Educational  Publishing 
Company,  Boston.  Price  $o  25. 

Kirby's  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard.  T.  Nelson  &  Co.  Price 
$0.50. 

Blakiston's  Glimpses  of  the  Earth.  E.  P.  Button  &  Co.  Price 
$0.80. 

Sparhawk's  Miss  West's  Class  in  Geography.     Boards.     $0.30. 

Frye's  Geography  with  Sand  Modelling.  Bay  State  Publishing 
Company,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.  Price  $1.00. 

Miller's  Little  People  of  Asia.     E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.     Price  $2.50. 

Andrews's  Geographical  Plays.  6  parts,  15  cents  each.  Lee  & 
Shepard. 

Barnes's,  Guyot's,  Swinton's,  Harper's,  Appletons',  Primary 
Geographies,  and  Our  World  (i). 

GEOGRAPHICAL  READERS 


Standard  Readers  (6  vols.) 
World  at  Home  (6  vols.) 
Blackie's  Readers  (7  vols.) 
London   Readers  —  Miss   Mason 
(5  vols.) 


Whitehall  Readers  (6  vols.) 
Glimpses  of  the  Globe  —  Blackis- 

ton  (6  vols.) 
National  Readers  —  King  (3  vols.) 


NOTE.  —  The  above  Geographical  Readers  are  all  published  in  London ;  but  they 
can  be  purchased  of  the  Boston  School  Supply  Company  for  about  $3  a  set,  except 
the  last  set,  which  will  cost  about  $1.50. 

SCIENCE  FOR  CHILDREN 

ANDREWS    .    .    .     Seven  Little  Sisters.    Part  I. 

Each  and  All.    Part  II. 

Ten  Boys. 

MOORE     ....    Overhead. 
NICHOLS  ....     Underfoot. 

MILLER   ....     Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur. 
BUCKLEY      .     .    .    The  Winners  in  Life's  Race. 

Life  and  her  Children. 
STWIN     ....     Eyes  Right. 
KIRBY      ....     The  World  at  the  Fireside. 

The  Sea  and  its  Wonders. 
RICHARDS    .    .     .     P'our  Feet,  Two  Feet,  and  No  Feet. 


45 3  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

BIART Adventures  of  a  Young  Naturalist. 

MAYER     ....     Sport  with  Gun  and  Rod.     Fully  illustrated. 
This  is  a  large  and  very  handsomely  printed  volume  on  Sport. 

ABBOTT   ....     Science  for  the  Young.     4  vols. 

Heat,  Light,  Water,  and  Land  Force.      These   books  contain   numerous 
simple  experiments,  readily  performed  by  boys  and  girls. 

MILLER    ....     In  Nesting  Time. 
BURROUGHS      .    .     Fresh  Fields. 

Sketches  of  Nature. 

HERRICK      .     .     .     Wonders  of  Plant  Life. 
PROCTOR  ....     Easy  Star  Lessons. 
GIBERNE.     .     .     .     Among  the  Stars.     Illustrated. 

Lessons  given  in  a  conversational  style,  well  adapted  to  read  to  beginners. 


BEARD      ....     Humor  in  Animals.     Illustrated. 

BUSH Reindeer,  Dogs,  and  Snowshoes. 

CHAMPLIN   .     .     .     Young  Folks'  Astronomy. 
The  book  contains  some  useful  illustrations. 

COOPER   ....     Animal  Life  in  the  Sea  and  Land.     Fully  illus. 
COOLIDGE    .     .     .     My  Household  Pets. 
D'ANVERS    .     .     .     Lowest  Forms  of  Water  Animals. 
No.  V.,  in  "  Science  Ladders."    There  are  six  volumes. 

DANA The  Geological  Story  Briefly  Told. 

DE  VERB      .     .     .     Wonders  of  Vegetation. 

Wonders  of  Water. 
FARMER  ....     A  Story-Book  of  Science.     Illustrated. 

Very  fine  illustrations,  and  the  text  well  adapted  for  children. 

GOSSE Romance  of  Natural  History. 

HEADLEY     .     .     .     Mountain  Adventures. 

....     Half- Hours  Underground.     Illustrated. 

Volcanoes  and  earthquakes  are  well  described  and  illustrated. 

HALL Animal  Sagacity. 

Contains  many  anecdotes  of  animals. 

HAMERTON  .     .     .     Chapters  on  Animals. 

HOLDER  ....     Marvels  of  Animal  Life.     Illustrated. 

In  the  Polar  Regions.     Illustrated. 

In  the  Temperate  Regions.     Illustrated. 
HOPKINS      .    ,    ,     Natural  History  Plays. 

Handbook  of  the  Earth. 


TRAVELS   FOR  CHI-LDREN  459 

KINGSLEY     .     .     .  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why. 

PRANG      ....  Natural  History  Series. 

NORWOOD    .         .  Facts  and  Phases  of  Animal  Life. 

MEYER          .     .     .  Real  Fairy  Folks. 

Science  made  plain  for  the  youngest  children. 

NORTHROP   .     .     .     Earth,  Sea,  and  Sky.     Illustrated. 

STEPHENSON     .     .     Boys  and  Girls  in  Biology. 

TAYLOR   ....     Half-Hours  at  the  Seaside. 

TENNEY  (Mrs.)    .     Young  Folks'   Pictures  and  Stories  of  Animals, 

6  parts. 

TREAT      ....     My  Garden  Pets. 
w  About  Spiders,  Ants,  etc. 

VAN  DERVOORT    .    The  Water  World.     Illustrated. 
WOLLF     ....     Wild  Animals. 
WOOD      ....     Out  of  Doors. 

Natural  History. 

Popular  Natural  History. 

The  Dwellers  in  our  Gardens. 

Strange  Dwellings.     Fully  illustrated. 
YOUNG     ....     Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe. 

TRAVELS  FOB  CHILDREN 

KNOX Boy  Travellers.     Asia.    8  parts. 

The  Boy  Travellers  on  the  Congo.     Fully  illus. 

HALE Family  Flights.     5  vols. 

Through  Mexico;  Around  Home;  Over  Egypt;  Through  Spain;  Through 
France. 

McCABE  ....     Our  Young  Folks  in  Africa. 

Our  Young  Folks  Abroad. 
MILLER    ....     Little  People  of  Asia. 
AYRTON  ....     Child-Life  in  Japan. 
HAYES      ....     Cast  Away  in  the  Cold. 
DODGE     ....     Hans  Brinker,  Holland. 
WARDMAN  ...    A  Trip  to  Alaska. 
BUTTERWORTH     .     Zigzag  Journeys.     7  vols. 

In  the  Levant;  In  Arcadia;  In  Northern  Lands;  In  the  Occident;  In 
the  Orient;  In  Classic  Lands;  In  Europe. 

These  books  contain  more  history  than  geography,  compared  with  some 
other  juveniles;  but  the  pictures  are  always  genuine  views  of  localities,  and 
many  romantic  stories  and  traditions  of  persons  and  places  are  woven  into  the 
description. 


460  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

ABBOTT   ....     Marco  Paul's  Voyages  and  Travels.     6  vols. 

In  New  York;  On  the  Erie  Canal;  In  the  Forests  of  Maine;  In  Vermont; 
In  Boston;  At  the  Springfield  Armory. 

Written  for  Young  Children,  but  imparting  much  information  of  the  scenery 
and  customs  of  these  sections. 

AB.BOTT   ....  Rollo  Books. 

GUMMING     .     .    .  Hunting:  South  Africa. 

ANDERSEN    .    .    .  Rambles  in  the  Hartz  Mountains. 

BUSH Reindeer,  Dogs,  and  Snowshoes. 

CHAMPNEY  .     .    .  Three  Vassar  Girls.     5  vols. 

CROWNINSHIELD  .  All  among  the  Lighthouses. 

A  story  about  the  coast  of  Maine. 

CAMPBELL   .     .    .    Old  Forest  Ranger. 

Describes  wild  sports  in  India  on  the  Neilgherry  Hills  and  in  the  Jungles. 

DULL Patty  Gray's  Journey  to  the  Cotton-islands. 

FARRAR   ....    Eastward  Ho ! 

Wild  Woods  Life. 
A  trip  of  Boston  boys  to  Northern  Maine. 

Down  the  West  Branch. 

Up  the  North  Branch. 

FOGG Land  of  the  Arabian  Nights. 

FRENCH  ....     Our  Boys  in  India. 

Our  Boys  in  China. 

GEDDIE    ....     Beyond  the  Himalayas. 
GRACE  GREENWOOD  and  HARRIET  MARTINEAU'S  Books. 
GREEY     ....     Young  Americans  in  Japan. 

Young   Americans   in   the    Wonderful   City    of 
Tokio. 

Young  Americans  among  the  Bear  Worshippers. 
HALL Adrift  in  the  Ice-Fields. 

Drifting  Round  the  World. 
HIELD      ....     Glimpses  of  South  America. 

This  is  a  small  book,  but  very  interesting  and  helpful  for  the  school-room. 

KINGSTON     .    .     .     Fred  Markham  in  Russia. 
NEWHALL    .    .    .     Harry's  Trip  to  the  Orient. 

The  Azores,  Mediterranean  Sea,  Constantinople,  Damascus,  Baalbec,  Acre, 
Nazareth,  etc. 

NORTHRUP  .     .     .     Camps  and  Tramps  in  the  Adirondacks.     1880. 

A  readable  book  for  young  people,  describing  real  adventures  by  a  small 
party  who  spent  a  summer  in  these  celebrated  woods. 


SCIENCE  FOR  ADULTS  461 

OBER Knockabout  Club  in  the  Everglades. 

OLIVER  OPTIC  .     .     Young  America  Abroad.     12  vols. 

OSWALD  ....     Days  and  Nights  in  the  Tropics.     Illustrated. 

RIDEING  ....     Boys  in  the  Mountains. 

Western  adventures,  with  numerous  fine  illustrations. 

Boys  Coastwise. 
A  boy's  <=tory  about  the  coast,  ocean-steamers,  wrecks,  life-saving  service,  etc, 

RAND All  Aboard  for  Sunrise  Lands. 

Rip  Van  Winkle's  Journeys. 
SANDER   ....     Spectacles  for  Young  Eyes. 
SCUDDER      .     .     .     Mr.  Bodley  Abroad:  In  Holland. 
STEPHENS     .     .     .     Knockabout  Club  Alongshore. 
TAYLOR   ....     Views  Afoot. 
TOWLE     ....     Heroes  of  History.     6  vols. 
TRAFTON      .     .     .     American  Girl  Abroad. 
WATSON  ....     Child-Life  in  Italy. 
WINSLOW     .     .     .     Children's  Fairy  Geography. 

WISE Boy  Travellers  in  Arabia. 

Contains  Anecdotes  of  the  Wandering  Arabs  and  Bagdad. 

SCIENCE    FOR    ADULTS 

RECLUS    ....     The  Ocean.    Fully  illustrated. 
The  Earth.     Fully  illustrated. 
Physical  Geography.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 
HUXLEY  ....     Physiography.     Illustrated. 
RECLUS    ....     The  History  of  a  Mountain.     Illustrated. 
WALLACE     .     .     .     Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals. 
AGASSIZ    ....     Seaside  Studies  of  Natural  History.     Illustrated. 

The  illustrations  are  very  fine,  and  the  descriptive  part  brief  and  pointed. 
A  very  valuable  book. 

TYNDALL      .     .     .     Forms  of  Water. 

DARWIN  ....    Vegetable  Mould  and  Earth- Worms. 

HUXLEY  ....     The  Crayfish.     1880.     Illustrated. 

Full  and  complete  description  of  the  lobster  and  crab. 

WALLACE     .    .     .     Natural  Selection. 
Island  Life. 

MORSE First  Book  of  Zoology. 

MARSH     ....     Man  and  Nature. 
DAMON     ....     Ocean  Wonders. 

SCIENCE    PRIMERS    on    Astronomy,    Geography,  Geology,   Botany, 
Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States. 


462  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

LAWSON  ....     Geography  of  Coast-Line. 

Geography  of  River  Systems, 
WILLIAMS    .     .    .     Geography  of  the  Oceans. 
JOHNSTON     .     .     .     The  Surface  Zones  of  the  Earth. 
SIMMONDS    .     .     .     Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea. 
JORDAN    «...     The  Ocean,  Tides,  Currents, 
MILNE      ....     Wonders   of  the    Earth  and  Heavens.     2  vols, 

Illustrated. 

Vol.  i.     Animals;  Minerals;  Peat;  Coral;    Mountains;    Glaciers;    Earth- 
quakes; Volcanoes. 
Vol.  2.     Rivers;   Lakes;  Oceans;  Winds;  Clouds;  Lightning;  Stars;  etc. 

PROCTOR  ....  Half-Hours  with  the  Stars. 

GIBSON    ....  Chips  from  the  Earth's  Crust.     Illustrated. 

GILPIN     ....  Mission  of  the  North- American  People. 

BROWN     ....  Races  of  Mankind.     4  vols. 

WOOD Uncivilized  Races. 


ADAMS     ....     Famous  Caves  and  Catacombs,     Illustrated. 

Famous  Caverns  and  Grottos.     Illustrated. 
ANSTED   ....     Physical  Geography. 
BANCROFT    .    .     .     Native  Races. 
COOKE      ....     Freaks  and  Marvels  of  Plant-Life. 
Presents  the  subject  in  a  popular  form. 

DANA Geology. 

DAVIS  .....     Whirlwinds,  Cyclones,  and  Tornadoes. 
DAW  SON  ....     Geology. 

ELLIS Red  Man  and  White  Man. 

EMERTON     .    .    .     Life  on  the  Seashore. 
EWING      ....     A  Week  in  a  Glass  Pond. 
FIGUIER   ....     The  Ocean.     Illustrated. 
FOSTER     ....     Mississippi  Valley. 

Frost  and  Fire.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

Vol.  i.     Home  Geology;   Atmospheric   Forms;  Air;    Denudation;    Frost 
marks. 

Vol.  2.     Currents;  Winds;  Dikes;  Sparks;  Springs;  etc. 

GOODRICH    .    .     .     Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Nations. 

GOSSE The  Ocean. 

GEIKIE     ....     The  Great  Ice-Age.     Illustrated. 

A  systematic  account  of  the  Glacial  Epoch. 

GALLOWAY  .     .    .     Coal-Mining  in  Great  Britain. 


SCIENCE   FOR   ADULTS  463 

HALDANE     .     .    .  Sub-tropical  Cultivations  and  Climates.     1886. 

HARRIS    ....  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation. 

HARTWIG     .     .     .  The  Ocean.     Illustrated. 

HEILPRIN     .    .    .  The  Geographical  and  Geological  Distribution 

of  Animals.     1887. 

HARTWIG     .     .     .  The  Subterranean  World.     Illustrated. 

HOOKER  ....  Mineralogy  and  Geology. 

HUGHES  ....  Physical  Geography. 

JORDAN    ....  The  Ocean.     Illustrated. 

JUDD Volcanoes. 

LONGITTE     .     .     .  Our  Birds  and  their  Haunts. 

LOOM  is    ....  Meteorology,     (Text-book.) 

LYELL Geology. 

MORSE     ....  Zoology. 

Monsters  of  the  Sea.     Illustrated. 

MURRAY  ....  Arctic  Geography  and  Ethnology. 

NICHOL    ....  Physical  History  of  the  Earth. 

OLIVER     ....  Astronomy  for  Amateurs.     1888. 

ORTON      ....  Zoology. 

PACKARD      .    .     .  Zoology. 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects. 

SCAMMON      .     .     .  Marine  Mammals. 

PROCTOR  ....  Light  Science  for  Leisure  Hours. 

Selections  of  the  author's  contributions  to  various  magazines. 
SOMERVILLE     .     .     Physical  Geography. 
SONREL    ....     The  Bottom  of  the  Sea. 
SMITH      ....     Domestic  Botany. 

An  exposition  of  the  structure  and  classification  of  plants,  and  of  their  uses 
for  food,  clothing,  medicine,  and  manufacturing  purposes. 

TREAT      ....     Home  Studies  in  Nature. 

Chapters  on  Ants. 

WALLACE     .    .     .     Natural  Distribution. 
WHYMPER    .     .     .    The  Fisheries  of  the  World. 
WILSON   ....     Prehistoric  Man. 
WOOD  .    .    .    .    f    Zoology. 


464  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


TRAVELS  FOB  ADULTS 

NORTH  AMERICA 
Alaska. 

DALL Alaska.     Fully  illustrated. 

The  most  complete  book  on  this  country  yet  published. 

SCHWATKA  .     .     .     The  Yukon.     Illustrated. 

The  author  describes  in  a  readable  way  his  journey  down  the  river. 

WRIGHT  ....     Among  the  Alaskans.     Illustrated. 
This  is  a  small  book,  but  it  contains  much  of  interest. 

SCIDMORE*.     .     .     Journeys  in  Alaska.     Illustrated. 
The  descriptions  are  good,  but  the  pictures  inferior. 


KARR Shores  and  Alps  of  Alaska. 

This  book  contains  a  fine  picture  of  Mount  St.  Elias. 

JACKSON  ....  Alaska.     Illustrated. 

PIERREPONT     .     .  From  Fifth  Avenue  to  Alaska. 

WHYMPER   .    .    .  Alaska. 

WARDMAN   ...  A  Trip  to  Alaska. 

The  author  visited  the  fur-seal  islands,  the  sea-otter  grounds,  Sitka,  and 
many  other  points  in  the  Alaskan  territory. 


The  Arctic  Regions. 

GREELY*     .    .    .    Three  Years  of    Service.     2  vols.     Fully  illus- 
trated.    Numerous  photos. 

The  illustrations  in  these  volumes  are  among  the  best,  many  of  them  being 
photographic. 

NORDENSKIOLD     .     The  Voyage  of  the  Vega.     Illustrated. 
Both  scientific  and  popular. 

RINK*     ....     Greenland.     Illustrated. 
The  best  book  on  this  country. 

HALL Second  Arctic  Expedition.     Fully  illustrated. 

HAYES  *  ....  Open  Polar  Seas.     Fully  illustrated. 

KANE Arctic  Explorations.     Fully  illustrated. 

MARKHAM    .     .     .  The  Great  Frozen  Sea.     Fully  illustrated. 

MURRAY  ....  Arctic  Geography  and  Ethnology. 


NORTH  AMERICA 


465 


NOURSE*      .     .     .     American  Explorations  in  the  Ice  Zones.     Fully 

illustrated. 

This  book  contains  the  condensed  account  of  all  the  great  expeditions  sent 
out  by  this  country. 

DAVIS North  Polar  Expeditions.     Fully  illustrated. 

DE  LONG     .     .     .     The  Voyage  of  the  Jeannette.    2  vols.     Illus. 
GILDER    ....     Ice  Pack  and  Tundra. 

Contains  an  account  of  Lieut.  Schwatka's  search  for  the  "  Jeannette." 


DUFFER  IN  . 

HALL  .    .  . 

HARTVVU;  . 
KENNEDY 
MACGAIIAM. 

NARES      .  . 

LAMONT  .  . 

This  voyage 

ROBINSON    .    , 
SMITH      .    . 
TOM  LIN  SON  . 

YOUNG     .     . 
WELLS     .    . 


BRYCE      .    .    .    . 
LORNE  (Marquis)  . 

IlATTON*      .      .      . 

BENJAMIN     .    . 


.  .  High  Latitudes. 

.  .  Arctic  Researches.     Illustrated. 

.  .  The  Polar  World.     Illustrated. 

.  .  To  Arctic  Regions  and  Back.     2  vols. 

.  .  Under  the  Northern  Lights. 

.  .  To  the  Polar  Sea.     2  vols.     Photos. 

.  .  Yachting  in  the  Arctic  Seas.     Illustrated. 

was  undertaken  for  hunting-purposes. 


Illus. 


Expedition  in  Polaris.     Illustrated. 
Arctic  Expeditions.     3  vpls.     Fully  illustrated. 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  Regions.     Illustrated. 
Voyages  of  the  Pandora.     Illustrated. 
Voyage  to  Spitzbergen. 

British  America. 

Manitoba.     Illustrated. 

Canadian  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 

Newfoundland.     Illustrated. 

Arcadia.     Illustrated. 

Gulf  of.  St.  Lawrence,  etc.     Illustrated, 


BUTLER   ....     Wild  North  Land. 
HALL Life  in  Manitoba. 


HARDY  .... 
FLEMING.  .  .  . 
FELLOWS  .  .  . 

A  canoe  voyage. 
OSGOOD     .... 

ROWAN    .    , 


Forest  Life  in  Arcadia. 
Canada  and  the  Rockies. 
The  Winnipeg  Country. 

Maritime  Provinces. 
Canada. 


SHEA Newfoundland,  Fisheries,  etc. 


466  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

ST.  JOHN.     .     .     .     Through  British  Columbia.     2  vols. 
TOCQUK    ....     Newfoundland.     Illustrated. 
WARNER.     .     .     .     New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  etc. 

Central  America. 

BODDAM-WHETHAM.     Across  Central  America. 

BELT A  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua. 

These   scientific   observations   are   made  very  fascinating   to  the  general 
reader,  by  the  pleasant  style  of  the  author. 

GILLMORE    .     .     .     Adventures  of  a  Young  Naturalist. 
SANBORN      ...     A  Winter  in  Central  America. 

Mexico. 

BLAKF(MaryE.)  ) 

SULLIVAN  (Margaret  F.)  }  Mexico:  Picturesque,  Political,  Progressive 

OBER  *      ....     Travels  in  Mexico.     Fully  illustrated. 

Mr   Ober  knows  what  to  see,  and  how  to  describe  it  for  the  general  reader. 

BROCK LEHURST    .     Mexico  To-day.     Illustrated. 

The  illustrations  are  very  fine. 

OSWALD  ....     Summerlancl  Sketches.     Illustrated. 
WILSON    ....     Mexico.     Illustrated. 

Describes  the  peasants  and  the  priests. 


APPLETONS'  GUIDE. 

ANDERSON    .     .     .     Mineral  Wealth  of  Mexico. 

BAN  DELI  ER  .     .     .     Tour  in  Mexico.     Photos. 

BEECHER  ....     A  Trip  to  Mexico. 

BLAKE  and  SULLIVAN.     Mexico:    Picturesque,  Political,  Progressive 

GEIGER    ....     A  Peep  at  Mexico. 

HAVEN      ....     Our  Next  door  Neighbor. 

KINGSLEY     .     .     .     South  by  West.     Illustrated. 

New  England. 

K'NG   .....     The  White  Hills.     Illustrated. 
DRAKE     ....     Heart  of  the  White  Mountains. 
GODFREY      .     .     .     Nantucket,  as  it  was  and  is. 
DRAKE     ....     Old  Landmarks  of  Boston.     Illustrated. 

Historic  Fields  of  Middlesex.     Illustrated. 

New  England  Coast.     Illustrated. 


FLAGG      ....     Fruits  and  Seasons  of  New  England. 
Birds  of.  New  England. 


NORTH   AMERICA  467 

FLAGG      ....     Woods  and  By-ways  of  New  England. 
FARRAR   ....     Richardson  and  Rangelcy  Lakes.     Illustrated. 

Moosehead     Lake,     and     the      North     Maine 

Wilderness. 

Mr   Farrar  describes,  not  only  the  great  Maine  lake,  but  also  the  head- 
waters of  the  Kennebcc,  Penobscot,  and  St.  John  rivers. 

FELLOWS      .     .     .     Boating  Trips  in  New  England. 
HuBKARD     .     .     .     Woods  and  Lakes  in  Maine. 
PICKERING   .     .     .     Guide  to  the  White  Mountains. 
STEELE    ....     Paddle  and  Portage  in  Maine. 
STEVENS  ....     Fly- Fishing  in  Maine  Lakes. 
THOREAU     .     .     .     Wai  den  Excursions. 

The  Maine  Woods. 

Merrimac  and  Concord  Rivers. 

Cape  Cocl. 

Indians. 

BATTEY    .    0    .    .     A  Quaker  among  the  Indians. 
COZZENS  ....     The  Marvellous  Country. 
DODGK*  ....     Our  Wild  Indians      Illustrated. 

Col   Dodge  lived  with   the  Indians,  and  he  describes  them  in  plain  Eng- 
lish as  he  saw  them  year  after  year. 

PARK  MAN     .     .     .     Oregon  Trail. 

This  book  gives  the  romantic  side  of  the  Indian  character  as  he  was  seen 
before  civilization  had  degraded  him 

II.  II A  Century  of  Dishonor. 

The  wrongs  of  the  Indians  are  vividly  set  forth  by  this  author. 

ELLIS Red  Man  and  White  Man. 

HOWARD  (Gen.)    .  Nez  Ferce  Joseph. 

M  EACH  AM     .     .     .  Wigwam  and  Warpath. 

RIGGS Forty  Years  with  the  Sioux. 

THATCHER   .     .     .  Indian  Traits. 

Pacific  Coast. 

NORDHOFF  .     .     .     California. 

California  for  Health.     Illustrated. 

NASH Oregon. 

PARKMAN     .     .     .     Oregon  Trail. 
PIERREPONT      .     .     From  Fifth  Avenue  to  Alaska. 
IIurciiiNGS.     .     .     California.     Illustrated. 
A  popular  account. 


468  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

KING Sierra  Nevada. 

LEIGHTON    .     .     .  Life  in  Puget  Sound. 

PALMER  ....  California. 

FISHER     ....  The  Californians. 

VAN  DYKE  .     .    .  Southern  California. 

This  book  gives  full  information  of  the  seasons,  temperature,  rainfall,  etc. 

ROBERTS  ....     Santa  Barbara  Islands. 

Including  beautiful  descriptions  of  these  islands  off  the  coast  of  Southern 
California,  their  people,  homes,  habits,  religion,  etc. 

The  Rocky  Mountains. 

BODDAM-WllETHAM.     Western  Wanderings. 

WINSER  ....  Northern  Pacific  Railroad.     Illustrated. 

SM ALLEY*    .     .     .  History  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad.     Illus 

PORTER*      .     .     .  The  West.     Illustrated. 

BAILLIE-GRAHAM  .  Camp  in  the  Rockies. 

BIRD Rocky  Mountains. 

DALL Colorado  and  Calfornia. 

BUTLER    ....  Northern  North  America. 

WINGATE     .     .     .  Through  the  Yellowstone  Park. 

WHYNDHAM     .     .  Upper  Yellowstone.     Illustrated. 

STANLEY.    .     .     .  Yellowstone. 

BLAKE     ....  On  the  Wing. 

ALDRIDGE    .     .     .  Ranch  Notes  in  Colorado. 

GILPIN     ....  The  Mission  of  the  North  American  People. 
Contains  vivid  descriptions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  plateau. 

INGERSOLL  .    .    .     Knockings  about  the  Rockies. 


BLAKE  (Mrs.  M.  E.)  On  the  Wing. 
BOWLES   ....     Across  the  Continent. 
DODGE     ....    The  Plains  of  the  Great  West. 

CONN Cowboys  (Dakota). 

CUSTER    ....     Boots  and  Saddle. 

A  very  graphic  account  of  army  life  in  the  West,  by  the  wife  of  Gen.  Custer. 

GILLMORE    .     .     .     Prairie  and  Forest.     2  vols. 

H.  H Bits  of  Travel. 

HAYES      ....     New  Colorado.     Illustrated. 
LLOYD      ....     San  Francisco. 
MURPHY  ....     My  Rambles  in  the  North-west. 
On  the  Frontier.     Photos. 


NORTH   AMERICA  469 

RENNY     ....     A  Journey  to  Salt  Lake  City.     2  vols. 
RICHARDSON     .     .     Yellowstone  River..    (Small.) 
ROBINSON     .     .     .     The  West  (Utah). 
ROBERTS  ....     .     Santa  Barbara.     Illustrated.     (Small.) 
SOUTH ESK    .     .     .     Saskatchewan  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Hunting  adventures  and  learned  talk. 

TODD The  Sunset  Land. 

VIVIAN     ....     Wanderings  in  the  Western  Land. 

The  South. 

KING*      ....     The  Great  South. 

GROSSCUP     .     .     .     Heart  of  the  Alleghanies.     Illustrated. 

Contains  .fine  descriptions   of  the   North-Carolina    mountains,   and  many 
habits  of  the  people. 

HARDY     .     .     .     .     Down  South. 
TOWNSHEND     .     .     Wild  Life  in  Florida. 

Washington,  Outside  and  Inside. 


HUGH Ten  years  on  a  Georgia  Plantation.     1883. 

KEMBLE  ....     Georgia  Plantation. 

INGERSOH.    .     •     .     Shenandoah  and  Beyond.     Illustrated. 

INGRAHAM    .     .     .     The  Sunny  South. 

Winter  Travel  in  Florida  and  Mexico. 

West   Indies. 

• 

BALLOU*      .     .    .     Due  South. 

This  book  tells  just  what  one  wishes  to  know  about  the  principal  West- 
Indian  Islands. 

HAZARD*     .     .     .     Cuba  with  Pen  and  Pencil.     Illustrated. 
Santo  Domingo.     Illustrated. 

OBER Camp  in  the  Caribbees.     Illustrated. 

PATON      ....     Down  the  Islands.     Illustrated. 

FROUDE   ....     The  English  in  the  West  Indies. 

Devoted  to  the  English  colonies,  and  very  readable. 

GOODMAN     .     .     .     Pearl  of  the  Antilles. 
HOWE,  Mrs.  J.  W.     Cuba. 

A  bright,  entertaining  book,  although  written  several  years  ago. 
DORR Bermuda. 

Contains  descriptions  of  the  people,  their  customs  and  habits,  with  a  fine 
colored  map. 


470  METHODS   AND   AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

DANA To  Cuba  and  Back. 

EDEN West  Indies.     Illustrated.     (Small.) 

IVES Nassau  and  the  Bahamas.     Illustrated. 

KINGSLEY     ...  At  Last. 

ST.  JOHN  ....  Hayti. 

Miscellaneous. 

PICTURESQUE  AMERICA.     Fully  illustrated. 
WILLIAMS    .     .     .     America  Illustrated. 
MANNING*  .     .     .     American  Pictures. 

The  illustrations  as  well  as  the  descriptions  are  striking  and  graphic. 
LAMB  *     ....     Homes  of  America. 

This  volume    contains   pictures   with   descriptions   of    the    most    beautiful 
residences  in  the  country. 

LAMB Mountains,  Lakes,  and  Rivers.    Fully  illustrated 

MARSHALL    .     .     .  Through  America.     Illustrated. 

Niagara.     Illustrated. 

STRONG    ....  Our  Country.     (Paper  cover.) 

CODMAN  ....  Round  Trip  through  Pacific  States. 

BACHELDER  .     .     .  Popular  Resorts.     Illustrated. 

SEARING.     .     .     .  Land  of  Rip  Van  Winkle.     Illustrated. 

FREEMAN      .     .     .  Impressions  of  America. 

STANFORD    .     .     .  Compendium  of  North  America. 

This  is  an  illustrated  cyclopaedia,  but  written  in  a  popular  style. 
BISHOP     ....     Four  Months  in  a  Sneak- Box. 

A  boat  voyage  of  2,600  miles  down  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  along  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

BISHOP     ....     Voyage  of  the  Paper  Canoe. 

From  Quebec  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  completing  the  trip  described  in  the 
former  volume.     These  books  form  good  reading  for  a  class  of  boys. 

PATTON*      .     .     .     Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States. 
This  book  is  full  of  information,  although  hardly  a  book  of  travel. 


BLODGETT    .     .     .  Climate  of  North  America. 

DILKE      .     „     .     .  Greater  Britain. 

HOVEY      ....  Celebrated  American  Caverns. 

KINSTON  ....  National  History  of  America.     Illustrated. 

KNOX Hunting  Adventures.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

McCABE  ....  The  Great  Republic.     A  series.     Illustrated. 
Each  State  is  taken  separately. 


SOUTH   AMERICA  471 

MURPHY  ....     Sporting  Adventures  in  the  Far  West.     Illus. 

ROE From  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba. 

ROBINSON     .     .     .     Across  the  United  States. 

Treats  especially  of  the  Mormons. 

ROBINSON     .     .     .     Great  Fur  Land. 

SALA America  Re-visited.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

SOUTH    AMERICA 

Argentine  Republic. 

BISHOP     ....     A  Thousand  Miles  Walk  across  South  America. 

From  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso  when  the  writer  was  only  sixteen  years 
of  age. 

PAGE La  Plata  and  Chili. 

CLEMENS      ...     La  Plata  Countries.     1886. 

Full  of  pertinent  facts  about  the  countries. 

STEWART     .     .    .    Brazil  and  the  La  Plata. 


KEE The  Wild  Horseman  of  the  Pampas. 

MONCRUFF  .     .     .  The  Pampas  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 

THOMPSON  .     .     .  Voyage  of  the  Challenger.     2  vols. 

WASHBURN  .     .     .  History  of  Paraguay.     2  vols. 

Brazil  and  Eastern  South  America. 
MARCOY  ....     Travels  in  South  America.     Fully  illustrated. 

The  illustrations  in  this  book  are  full  of  instruction  is  well  as  beauty.     The 
description  is  equally  interesting. 

SMITH      ....     Brazil.     Illustrated. 

An  instructive  account  of  the  country  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

FLETCHER    .     .     .     Brazil  and  the  Brazilians. 

A  standard  work  on  the  country. 

AGASSIZ  ....     A  Journey  in  Brazil. _  Illustrated. 
WELLS     ....     Through  Brazil.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

In  this  record  of  a  three  thousand  miles  journey,  Mr.  Wells  depicts  the 
aspects  of  the  country,  and  the  sorts  and  conditions  of  the  people. 

EWBANK  ....     Life  in  Brazil. 
BROWN  *  ....     The  Amazon. 

Describes  the  branches  of  the  Amazon  especially. 

THURN     ....     Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana.     Illustrated. 


472  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

BATES The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon. 

BODDAM-WHETHAM,  British  Guiana. 

BRETT      ....  Forests  of  Guiana. 

KELLER    ....  The  Amazon  and  Madeira  Rivers.     Illustrated. 

MATHEWS    .     .     .  Up  and  Down  the  Amazon. 

MULHALL     .     .     .  Between  the  Amazon  and  the  Andes.     Illus. 

ORTON     ....  Andes  and  Amazon. 

Chili  and  the  Western  Part. 

BOYD Chili.     Photos. 

SQUIER*.     .     .     .     Peru.     Illustrated. 

HUTCHINSON    .     .     Two  Years  in  Peru.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 
MARCOY  ....     Travels  in  South  America.     2  vols. 
Vol.  I.  is  largely  devoted  to  Peru. 


DAHLGREN  .     .     .  South-Sea  Sketches. 

MARKHAM   .     .     .  Peru.     Illustrated.     (Small.) 

SPENCE    ....  The  Country  of  Bolivar.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

VAN  TSHUDE   .     .  Journey  in  the  Ancles. 

Northern  Part. 

PAEZ Life  in  the  Llanos  of  Venezuela.     Illustrated. 

DANA Four  Years  in  Venezuela. 

Southern  Part. 

BEERBOHM  .     .     .     Patagonia.     Fully  illustrated. 
DIXIE*    ....     Across  Patagonia. 
MUSTERS      .    .     .    The  Patagonians. 

Miscellaneous. 

BATES Stanford's  Compendium  of  South  America.     Ill, 

Embraces  the  whole  country,  and  is  a  real  cyclopaedia. 

WATERTON  .     .     .     Wanderings  in  South  America. 

RUMBARD     .     .     .     The  Great  Silver  River.     1887.     Illustrated. 

GALLANGA   .    .     .     South  America. 

HASSOURCK      .     .     Four  Years  among  Spanish  Americans. 

MYERS      ....     Life  and  Nature  under  the  Tropics. 

KNIGHT  ....     The  Cruise  of  the  Falcon. 

The  author,  with  three  friends  and  a  boy,  sailed  to  the  noted  seaports  of 
South  America  in  a  thhty-ton  yacht. 


AFRICA  473 

AFRICA 
Central  Africa. 

STANLEY*    .     .     .     Through  the  Dark  Continent.     2  vols.     Fully 

illustrated. 

STANLEY  ....     Congo.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 
STANLEY  ....     How  I  found  Livingstone. 
CAMERON     .     .     .     Across  Africa. 
BAKER      ....     Albert  N'Yanza.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

Ismalia.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

Abyssinia. 

SCHWEINFURTH  *     The  Heart  of  Africa.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 
Describes  the  pigmies,  flora  as  well  as  people,  of  Niam-Niam. 

THOMPSON    .     .     .     Through  Masai  Land.     Fully  illustrated. 

Eastern  Equatorial  Africa.     Fully  illustrated. 
Mr.  Thompson  was  sent  out  by  the  London  Royal  Geographical  Society  to 
make  as  complete  a  map  as  possible,  to  observe  the  natural  history,  climate, 
and  people.     He  carried  out  this  mission  in  the  most  conscientious  manner. 

JAMES*    ....     Wild  Tribes  of  the  Soudan.     Photos. 

Very  interesting  hunting  adventures  in  Eastern  Soudan,  starting  from  the 
Red  Sea. 

LONG   .     .     .     .     .     Central  Africa. 

JOHNSON  ....     The  Kilima-Njaro  Expedition.     1886.     Illus. 

A  very   interesting   account   of   his   journey   to   this   mountain,   and   his 
attempt  to  ascend  to  the  summit. 

SPEKE      ....     The  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile.     Illus. 
BURTON    ....     The  Lake  Region. 
Zanzibar.     2  vols. 


BARTH      ....     Central  Africa.     3  vols.    Fully  illustrated. 
DENNET  ....     Seven  Years  in  the  Congo  District.    Illus.    1887. 
Du  CHAILLU    .     .     Discoveries  in  Equatorial  Africa. 
Stories  of  the  Gorilla  Country. 
Ashango  Land. 

Many  of  his  statements  about  the  gorilla  have  been  questioned  by  subse- 
quent travellers. 

GEDDIE    ....     Lake  Regions. 

Gives  the  details  of  the  fauna,  flora,  and  people. 

JOHNSON  ....     The  River  Congo. 


474  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

LIVINGSTONE    .     .     Last  Journals.     2  vols.    'Illustrated. 
PETHERICK  .     .     .     Central  Africa.     2  vols. 
PRINGLE  ....     Towards  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 
PRINGLE  ....     Across  the  Country  between  the  Shire,  Zambesi, 

and  Quaqua  in  Eastern  Africa. 
Shows  the  present  condition  of  the  people. 
POOLE      ....     Sierra  Leone. 
ROWLEY  ....     Twenty  Years  in  Central  Africa. 
SKERTCIILY  .     .     .     Dahomy.     Fully  illustrated. 
THOMPSON    .     .     .     Eastern  Equatorial  Africa.     Illustrated. 
SOUTHWORUH  .     .     Four  Thousand  Miles  of  African  Travel.     Fully 

illustrated. 

TAYLOR    ....     Lake  Regions. 
WILSON    ....     Uganda  and  Egyptian  Soudan.     2  vols. 

Egypt. 

EBERS Egypt.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

LANE- POOLE*  .     .     Modern  Egyptians.     2  vols. 
Graphic,  giving  just  what  is  needed  for  the  class-room. 

MANNING*.     .     .     Land  of  the  Pharaohs.     Fully  illustrated 
WARREN  ....     Life  on  the  Nile. 

Gives  very  minutely  the  details  of  the  trip. 
WARNER.     .     .     .     Winter  on  the  Nile. 
STUART    ....     Egypt.     Fully  illustrated. 

Nile  Gleanings.     Illustrated. 
ABNKY     ....     Thebes.     Photos. 
SHARPS    ....     Egypt,  Nubia,  etc.     Photos. 
SMITH*    ....     Attractions  of  the  Nile.     2  vols. 
BUTLER    ....     Court-Life  in  Egypt.     1888. 

Written  by  an  English  scholar  who  was  a  tutor  for  the  two  sons  of  the 
khedive. 


AD\MS     ....  Egypt :  Natural  History,  Geology,  etc. 

BAKER     ....  Nile  Tributaries.     Illustrated. 

BARTLETT    .     .     .  Nile  Boat.     Illustrated. 

BELZONI  ....  Pyramids,  Temples,  etc.     Illustrated. 
Considered  very  high  authority  on  the  subject. 

EDEN  .     .     .     .     .  The  Nile  without  a  Dragoman. 

EDWARDS     ...  A  Thousand  Miles  up  the  Nile.     Fully  illus. 

FIELD  ......  On  the  Desert  of  Egypt. 


AFRICA 

FITZGERALD     .    .     Suez  Canal.     2  vols. 
LOR  ING    ....     Egypt.     Fully  illustrated. 
MCGREGOR  .     ,     .     Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan. 

The  first  pages  contain  some  interesting  notes  on  Cairo,  Nile,  etc. 

PETRIE     ....  The  Pyramids. 

PRIME      .     .  .  .  Boat- Life  in  Egypt. 

RAWLINSON  .  .  Egypt.     Historical. 

ST.  JOHN.     .  .  .  Egypt  and  Nubia. 

WALLACE     .  .  .  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Interests. 

WHATELY     .  .  .  Among  the  Huts  in  Egypt.     Illustrated. 

WERNER.     .  .  .  Nile  Sketches.     Colored  illustrations. 

Northern  Africa. 

DE  AMICIS  .     .     .     Morocco.     Fully  illustrated. 
GRAHAM  ....     Travels  in  Tunisia.     Fully  illustrated. 

The  illustrations  are  very  unique  and  attractive. 

DE  HESSE-WARTEGG.*    Tunis.     Illustrated. 
PARKYNS       ...     Abyssinia.     Illustrated 
PLAYFAIR     .     .     .     Algeria  and  Tunis.     Illustrated. 
HENTZ      ....     March  to  Magdala. 


475 


COWAN    .    .    , 
EDWARDS     .    , 

.     .     Morocco. 
,     .     Algeria. 

HOWLY      .      . 

LESS  EPS    .     .     , 

RlED 

.     .     Suez  Canal. 
.     .     The  Suez  Canal. 
Tunis 

STUTFIELD   . 
TOWNSHEND 

Through  Morocco. 
.     .     Tunis.     Hunting. 

1  886. 

Southern  Africa. 

BOYLE*    ....  To  the  Cape  for  Diamonds. 

BAKER      ....  A  Year's  Housekeeping  in  South  Africa. 

LEYLAND.     .     .     .  South  Africa.     Photos. 

SHELDON      .     .     .  Yankee  Girls  in  Zuiuland.     Illustrated. 

ATCHERLEY.     .     .  Trip  to  Boerland. 

BAINES     ....  Gold  Regions  of  South-Eastern  Africa.     Photos. 

ANDERSSEN  .     .     .  Lake  Ngami. 


OP  THE 

[UNIVERSITY! 


476  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

GUMMING     .     .     .     Hunting  in  South  Africa. 

Describes  the  process  of  hunting  lions,  and  gives  many  facts  about   their 
habits. 

HOLUB      ....     Seven  Years  in  Southern  Africa. 
FARINI     ....     Through  the  Kalahari  Desert.     Illustrated. 
HARRIS    ....     Sports  of  Southern  Africa.     Colored  illus. 


ASHE Zulu  Campaign. 

BROOKS    ....  Natal.     Photos. 

CHAPMAN     .     .     .  Southern  Africa  —  Interior.     2  vols. 

DIXIE Zululand. 

FERN Off  to  the  Wilds —Natal. 

KERR The  Far  Interior. 

JENKENSON  .    .    .  Zulu. 

PEACE Natal. 

A  reliable  account  of  this  British  colony. 

RICHARDS     .    .     .     Transvaal. 

TAYLOR    ....     South  Africa. 

THEAI Boers  of  South  Africa. 

Miscellaneous. 

JONES*     ....     Explorations  and  Discoveries.     Fully  illustrated. 
Contains  condensed  accounts  of  the  different  explorers. 

JOHNSON  ....     Stanford's  Compendium.     Illustrated. 
A  popular  cyclopaedia  of  the  country. 

MALONY*     .     .     .     Forestry  of  West  Africa.     1887. 

Interesting  facts  about  the  vegetation. 

OLIVER     ....     Madagascar.     2  vols. 

A  good  reference  book. 

WEEKS     ....     Azores, 

FAULKNER   .    .    .     Elephant  Hunts. 

SHAW  .....     Madagascar  and  France. 

The  first  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  relation  between  France  and 
Madagascar,  but  the  rest  of  the  book  contains  much  to  interest  the  geogra- 
pher and  naturalist. 

GILI Six  Months  in  Ascension. 

An  interesting  account  of  life  in  this  out-of-the-way  place. 


ADAMS     ....     Hair-breadth  Escapes. 
BAKER      ....     Summer  among  the  Azores. 


AFRICA  AND  ASIA  477 

BOARNE    ....  Heroes  of  African  Discovery. 

ELLIS West  Africa. 

African  Islands. 

FIELD On  the  Desert. 

GILL     .....  Ascension. 

KINGSTON     .     .     .  Great  African  Travellers. 

MARKHAM    .     .     .  Abyssinia  Expedition. 

MITCHINSON      .     .  Senegambia. 

MCDONALD  .     .     .  Heathen  Africa.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

MULLEN  ....  Twelve  Months  in  Madagascar. 

KENDALL      .     .     .  Madeira.     (Small.) 

READE      ....  Western  Africa. 

African  Sketches.     2  vols. 

STONE Teneriffe.     2  vols. 

SELOUR    ....  A  Hunter's  Wanderings.     Illustrated. 

VYSE Pyramids  of  Gizeh.     3  vols.     Illustrated. 

WELLS      ....  Miss  Tinne's  Life. 

WILSON    ....  The  Egypt  of  the  Past.     Colored  illustrations. 

WILKINSON.     .     .  Ancient  Egyptians.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

ZINCKE    ....  Egypt  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  the  Khedive. 

ASIA 
Arabia. 

PALGRAVE    .     .     .     Arabia.     2  vols. 

An  insight  into  the  character  and  customs  of  the  wild  Bedouin  tribes. 

TAYLOR    ....     Arabia. 
BLUNT     ....     Bedouin  Tribes. 

A  Pilgrimage  to  Nejd. 
DOUGHTY     .     .     Northern  Arabia. 

A  thorough  study  of  the  people  and  the  country. 


FIELD  .     .     .     .     .  On  the  Desert  of  Arabia. 

FOGG Land  of  the  Arabian  Nights. 

JESSUP      ....  Women  of  the  Arab. 

BURCKHARDT  .     .  Travels  in  Arabia.     2  vols. 

NAUGHAM   .     .     .  The  Alps  of  Arabia. 


478  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


CHINA 

THOMPSON  *    .     .  Ten  Years'  Travels.     Fully  illustrated. 

WILLIAMS*      .     .  The  Middle  Kingdom.    2  vols.    Fully  illustrated. 

PREJEVALSKY   .     .  Mongolia.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

Across  Tian  Shan. 

GRIFFIS*      .     .     .  Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation. 

COLQUHOUN     .     .  Across  Chryse.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

FIELDE    ....  Pagoda  Shadows.     Illustrated. 

EDEN*    ....  China  and -Corea. 

MOUHAT  ....  Indo-China.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

NORMAN  ....  France  in  the  Far  East. 

LOWELL  ....  Korea.     Photos. 

A  sketch  of  the  geography,  the  climate,  and  the  coast  of  the  country. 


ATKINSON    .     .     .  Travels  near  the  Amoor. 

ANDERSON    .     .     .  Mandalay  to  Momien. 

BOGLE      ....  Tibet. 

DOOLITTLE  .     .     .  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese.     2  vols. 

GILMOUR      .     .     .  Among  the  Mongols. 

GILL Rivers  of  Golden  Land.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

HEM  NY    ....  Cross  and  Dragon. 

Pictures  of  Real  Life  in  Canton. 

Hue Tartary  and  Tibet. 

Chinese  Empire. 

JAGOR Travels  in  the  Philippines. 

LOFTUS    ....  Isthmus  of  Kra. 

MARGARY     .    .     .  China. 

MITFORD      ...  To  Cabul. 

NEVINS    ....  China  and  the  Chinese. 

OLIPHANT    .     .     .  China  and  Japan. 

OPPORT    ....  Forbidden  Land. 

PIARSETSKY      .     .  Russian  Travellers  in  Mongol.     2  vols.     Illus. 

Ross Corea. 

WRIGHT  ....  China.    8  vols. 

WILLIAMSON    .     .  Old  Highways  in  China. 

WILLIAMSON    .    .  Observations  of  Every-Day  Life. 


ASIA  479 


Holy   Land. 

STANLEY.     .     .     .  Sinai  and  Palestine. 

THOMSON      .     .     .  The  Land  and  the  Book.     2  vols. 

PRIME Tent  Life  in  the  Holy  Land. 

MANNING     .     .     .  Those  Holy  Hills.     Fully  illustrated. 

MCGREGOR  .     .     .  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan. 

FIELD Among  the  Holy  Hills. 

TEMPLE   ....  Picturesque  Palestine.     Colored  illustrations. 

RITTER    ....  The  Geography  of  Palestine.     4  vols. 

TRISTRAM    .     .     .  Palestine.     Fully  illustrated. 

MERRILL.     .    .     .  East  of  the  Jordan. 

Me  LEO D  ....  Half- Hours  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Through  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Syria,  with  graphic  descriptions  of  scenery, 
people,  customs,  cities,  etc. 


BARKER  ....  Syria  and  Egyyt.     2  vols. 

BRYCE      ....  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat. 

BURT Palestine.     Fully  illustrated. 

CONDER  ....  Heth  and  Moab. 

DRAKE     ....  Unexplored  Syria.     2  vols. 

HILL Sinai  and  Western  Palestine.     Illustrated. 

MARTIN    ....  A  Visit  to  the  Holy  Land. 

ROGERS    ....  Domestic  Life  in  Palestine. 

TILLOTSON   .     .     .  Palestine.     Fully  illustrated. 

WILSON    ....  Picturesque  Palestine.     Fully  illustrated. 

India. 

ROUSSELF.T  .     .     .     India  and  its  Native  Princes.     Fully  illustrated 
URWICK*     .     .     .     Indian  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 

Indian  Alps.     Fully  illustrated. 
TEMPLE   ....     India  in  1880. 

Men  and  Events  of  my  Time. 
BUTLER  *      ...     Land  of  the  Veda. 
BOSE* Hindoos  as  they  are. 

A  graphic  description  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people. 

EDEN India,  Historical  and  Descriptive. 

HORNADAY  .     .     .     Two  Years  in  the  Jungle.     Illustrated. 

A  very  interesting  hunting-trip. 


480  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

MATHESON   .     .     .     England  to  Delhi.     Fully  illustrated. 
STONE      ....     Illustrated  India. 
VINCENT  ....     Land  of  the  White  Elephant. 
WHEELER    .     .     .     Prince  of  Wales'  Visit  to  India. 
WILSON   ....     The  Abode  of  Snow. 

Rambles  in  Northern  India.     Photos, 


ADAMS     ....  Naturalist  in  India. 

ATKINSON    .     .     .  Social  Life  in  India. 

ARNOLD  ....  Indian  Hills.     2  vols. 

BAKER     ....  Ceylon. 

Hunting  adventures. 

BURB RIDGE  .     .     .  The  Garden  of  the  Sun.     Illustrated. 

CAIRO The  Land  and  the  People. 

(CASSELL'S)  .     .     .  India.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

CHUNDER     .     .     .  Travels  of  a  Hindoo.     2  vols. 

CUNNINGHAM  .     .  British  India  and  its  Rulers. 

DAY     .....  Bengal  Peasant  Life. 

DUFF Indian  Journey. 

ELLIOT     ....  A  Planter  in  the  Jungles  of  Mysore.    2  vols.    Ill, 

FRAZER    ....  Sporting  Life  in  India. 

GORDON  ....  Our  Trip  to  Burmah.     Photos. 

GRANT     ....  History  of  India.     Illustrated.     2  vols. 

GRIFFIN  ....  Famous  Monuments  of  India.     Photos. 

HA  ECKEL     .     .     .  Travels  in  India  and  Ceylon. 

HENDERSON      .     .  Lahore  to  Yorkand. 

HOWE      ....  Every-day  Life  in  India.     Illustrated. 
The  author  lived  with  the  people,  and  could  talk  their  language. 

HUNTER  ....  The  Indian  Empire. 

KING   ......  A  Civilian's  Wife  in  India.     Illustrated. 

JKN-NINGS     .     .     .  Gold-fields  of  India.     Illustrated. 

LAMBERT      ...  A  Trip  to  Cashmere. 

MARVIN    ....  Russian  Advance  to  India. 

MALLESON  (Lord  Clive).     Frontiers  of  the  Indian  Empire. 

MCKKNZIE  .     .     .  The  Romantic  Land  of  Hind. 

MARSHALL   .     .     .  Southern  India.     Photos. 

MATEER  ....  Native  Life  in  Travancore.     Illustrated. 

OLDFIELD    .     .     .  Sketches  from  Ncpaul.     Colored  illustrations. 


ASIA  481 

ROBINSON     .     .     .     Under  the  Sun. 

In  my  Indian  Garden. 

Under  the  Punkah. 

RUSSELI Tour  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.     Illustrated. 

Ross Land  of  the  Five  Rivers. 

TAYLOR   ....     India,  China,  etc. 
WRIGHT  ....     Nepaul.     Illustrated. 

Japan. 

GRIFFIS   ....     The  Mikado's  Empire.     Fully  illustrated. 
MORSK      ....     Japanese  Homes.     Fully  illustrated. 

A  complete  description  with  pen  and  pencil,  of  the  Japanese  household,  by 
one  who  lived  with  them  for  several  years. 

REIN Japan.     Photos. 

Based  upon  a  residence  of  two  years  in  this  country. 
BIRD*      ...     .     Japan.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

The  first  volume  is  a  very  racy,  and  wonderfully  interesting,  account  of  the 
country  and  people.  .Many  parts  of  the  book  can  be  read  with  profit  to  upper 
classes. 

EDEN Japan.     Historical  and  descriptive. 


ALCOCK   ....  The  Capital  of  the  Tycoon.     2  vols. 

ADAMS     ....  Historical  Japan.     2  vols. 

BLACK      ....  Young  Japan.     2  vols.     Historical. 

DIXON      ....  Land  of  the  Morning. 

FAULDS    ....  Nine  Years  in  Niphon,  Japan. 

Sketches  of  Japanese  manners  by  a  medical  man  who  practised  among  these 
people. 

LEGENDRE.     .     .  Progressive  Japan. 

MORSMAN     .     .     .  Japan. 

OLIVER    ....  On  and  off  Duty.     China  and  Japan.     Ill  us, 

SARTOW  ....  Handbook  of  Japan. 

TAYLOR   ....  Visit  to  India,  China,  and  Japan. 

Persia. 

ARNOLD*     .     .     .     Through  Persia  by  Caravan.     2  vols. 
BASSETT  ....     Persia,  the  Land  of  the  Immans. 

A  full  and  graphic  description  of  the  author's  residence  and  travels. 


482 


METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 


BAKER      ....  Persia. 

CHESNEY      .     .     .  Euphrates. 

ERASER    ....  Persia.     Historical  and  descriptive. 

GOLDSMID    .     .     .  Eastern  Persia. 

MOUNSEY      .     .     .  Caucasus  and  Persia. 

STACK      ....  Six  Months  in  Persia. 


Siberia. 

NORDENSKIULD    .     Arctic  Voyage.     Illustrated. 

NIERNEJOWSKI     .     Siberian  pictures. 

MELVILLE    ...     In  the  Lena  Delta.     Illustrated. 

BARNABY     .     .     .     Ride  to  Khiva. 

KENNAN  .     .     .     .     Tent-life  in  Siberia.     Exiles  in  Siberia. 

LANSDELL    .     .     .     Through  Siberia.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

MERCHIE      .     .     .     Overland  Route.     Fully  illustrated. 

MACGAHAN  .     .     .     Campaigning  on  the  Oxus.     Illustrated. 

The  author  was  called  by  the  Russians  "  a  man  of  mettle"  for  his  wonder- 
ful ride  to  Khiva. 
PUMPELLY    .     .     .     Across  America  and  Asia. 

Not  new,  but  full  of  interesting  information,  written  in  a  delightful  style. 


ATKINSON  . 

ABBOTT  .  . 

DE  LONG  . 

ERMAN    .  . 

GlLMOUR 

SCHUYLER* 

SEEBOHM  . 
WOOD 


Siberia. 
To  Khiva. 

Voyage  of  the  Jeannette.     2  vols. 
Travels  in  Siberia.     2  vols. 
Among  the  Mongols. 
Turkistan.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 
East  Siberia. 
Lake  Aral. 


Miscellaneous. 

BALLOU*     .    .    .  Due  West,  1887. 

FLOYER    ....  Unexplored  Beluchistan.     Illustrated. 

KNOX Overland  through  Asia.     (Tartar  Life.) 

FIELD In  the  East.     2  vols.     Colored  illustrations. 

GORDON  ....  The  Roof  of  the  World.     Illustrated. 

KEANE     ....  Stanford's  Compendium.     Illustrated. 
A  well-written  cyclopaedia  of  the  whole  of  Asia.     A  standard  work. 

Eastern  Geography. 


ASIA  483 

TEMPLE  ....     Oriental  Experiences. 
WILSON   ....     The  Abode  of  Snow. 

HAECKEL     ...     A  Visit  to  Ceylon. 

A  German  naturalist's  account  of  this  island. 
BONOMI    ....     Nineveh  and  its  Palaces. 
BURNABY     .     .     .     On  Horseback  through  Asia  Minor.     2  vols. 
CAMPBELL   .     .     .     Wild  Tribes  of  Khondistan.     Illustrated. 
CLARKE  ....     Ten  Great  Religions. 
GUMMING     .     .     .     Camp  and  Jungle.     Illustrated. 

From  the  Hebrides  to  the  Himalayas. 

CUNYNGHAME  .     .     The  Black  Sea,  Caucasus,  and  Caspian.     Illus. 
DUKE Kabul  Campaign. 


ATKINSON    .     .     .  Upper  and  Lower  Amoor. 

BELT The  Maldive  Islands. 

BOCK Temples  and  Elephants.     Upper  Siam. 

ELLIS On  a  Raft  —  Syria,  Kurdistan.     2  vols.     Illus. 

FIELD Egypt  to  Japan. 

GOWER     ....  From  Brindisi  to  Yokohama.     (Small.) 

GRAY From  Pall  Mall  to  the  Punjaub. 

HARRIMAN  ...  In  the  Qrient. 

HUNTLY  ....  Travels,  Sports,  and  Politics.     Illustrated. 
Hunting  Adventures  in  Western  Asia. 

KEANE My  Journey  to  Medinah. 

Six  Months  in  Mecca. 

KINGLAKE    .     .     .  Eothen  ;  or,  Travels  in  the  East 

LANSDELL    .     .     .  Russian  Central  Asia.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

LOWELL  ....  Korea.     Photos. 

A  sketch  of  the  geography,  the  climate,  and  the  coast  of  the  country. 

MACCREGOR     .     .  Beloochistan.     Illustrated. 

MARVIN  ....  Merv,  and  the  Man-stealing  Turkomans. 

MOUNSEY     .     .     .  The  Caucasus  and  Persia. 

NEWMAN      .     .     .  Babylon  and  Nineveh.     Illustrated. 

O'DONOVAN      .     .  The  Merv  Oasis.     2  vols. 

SCHUMACHER.     .  Across  the  Jordan.     Fully  illustrated. 

SCOTT-STEVENSON,  Our  Ride  through  Asia  Minor. 

TEFLER    ....  Crimea  and  Transcaucasia.     2  vols. 

VAMBERY     .     .     .  Travels  in  Central  Asia. 


484  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN   GEOGRAPHY 

VAMBERY     .     .     .     Across  the  Turkoman  Desert  to  Khiva,  Bokhara, 

and  Samarcand. 

WALLACE     .     .     .     The  Malay  Archipelago. 
WARBURTON     .     .     The  Crescent  and  the  Cross. 
WARNER      ...     In  the  Levant. 

EUROPE 

France. 

DE  AMICIS  .     .     .  Studies  of  Paris. 

GREENE  ....  French  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 

SALA Paris  Herself  Again.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

HAMERTON  .     .     .  Paris.     Fully  illustrated. 

Descriptive  of  its  architecture  and  topography. 

JACKSON  ....  Court  of  the  Tuileries.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

MURRAY  ....  High  Life  in  Paris  under  the  Republic. 

ROBINSON    .     .     .  Parks  and  Gardens  of  Paris. 

SAINTE-BEUVE      .  Monday  Chats. 


BON  WICK      .     .     .     French  Colonies  and  their  Resources. 
COLANGE      .     .     .     French  Pictures. 
DICKENS  ....     Dictionary  of  Paris. 
EDMANDS     .     .     .     Holidays  in  Eastern  France. 

A  Year  in  Western  France. 

French  Home-Life. 

HILLSBRAND     .     .     France,  and  the  French  of  the  iQth  Century. 
HAMERTOX  .     .     .     Round  my  House. 

Describes  the  country  life  and  scenery. 

HUTCHINSUN    .     .     Summer  Holidays  in  Brittany.     Illustrated. 
JERROLD  ....     At  Home  in  Paris. 
MACQUOID    .     .     .     Normandy.     Illustrated. 

Maritime  Alps.     Illustrated. 

In  the  Ardennes.     Illustrated. 

Through  Brittany.     Illustrated. 

PENNELL      .     .     .     Through  France  on  a  Tricycle.     iS88. 
POWELL   ....     Our  Boating  Trip  from  Bordeaux  to  Paris. 
ST.  JOHN  ....     Purple  Tints  of  Paris. 
STEVENSON  .    .     .     Travels  with  a  Donkey. 


EUROPE  485 

TURNER  ....     Wanderings  by  the  Loire.     Illustrated. 

Rivers  of  France.     Illustrated. 

VINCENT  ....     In  the  Shadows  of  the  Pyrenees. 
VIZETELLY   .     .     .     Paris  in  Peril.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

Germany. 

HAWTHORNE    .     .  Saxon  Studies. 

GREENE  ....  Pictures  of  the  Fatherland.     Fully  illustrated. 

BROWN     ....  An  American  Family  in  Germany. 

BARING-GOULD     .  Germany.     (Small.)     Illustrated. 

HALL German  Culture. 

WOOD The  Black  Forest.     Fully  illustrated. 

VIZETELLY   .     .     .  Berlin.     2  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 

RUGGLES  ....  Germany  seen  without  Spectacles. 

GEORGE   ....  Etchings  on  the  Mosel. 

STINDE     ....  Sketches  of  Berlin  Life. 

A  picture  of  middle-class  life. 

HART German  Universities. 

Pictures  German  student-life  in  its  true  colors. 


BASHERVILLE   .     .  Legends  of  the  Rhine. 

BRACE      ....  Home-Life  in  Germany. 

BLACKBURN      .     .  The  Hartz  Mountains. 

CHETWZYND     .     .  Life  in  a  German  Village. 

DIDON      ....  The  Germans. 

HOWITT  ....  Student-Life  of  Germany.     Illustrated. 

MALCOM  ....  Pictures  of  German  Life. 

MAYHEW      .     .     .  German  Life  and  Manners.     2  vols.     Illustrated 

RIMMER  ....  Early  Homes  of  Prince  Albert.     Illustrated. 

STIELER  ....  The  Rhine. 

SCHMID    ....  Bavarian  Highlands. 

SEGUIN     ....  Black  Forests.     Illustrated. 

TOMLINSON  .     .     .  Camp-Life  on  the  Weser. 

WARING  ....  The  Bride  of  the  Rhine.     Illustrated. 

Picturesque  descriptions  from  a  row-boat  journey  on  the  river  Mosel. 

WTATTS     ,  An  Art-Student  in  Munich.     2  vols. 


486  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Great  Britain. 

PATTEN    ....     England  as  seen  by  an  American  Banker. 

This  book  shows  the  natural  aspects  of  the  country,  and  the  actual  life  of 
the  laboring  and  lower  middle  classes.  It  contains  a  fine  description  of  the 
Bank  of  England. 

MANNING     .     .     .     English  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 
HAWTHORNE  (Mrs.)  Notes  on  England  and  Italy. 
HAWTHORNE  (N  )     Our  Old  Home. 

GREENE   ....     Scottish  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 
CARNEGIE     ...     An  American  Four-in-Hand  in  Britain. 

Our  Own  Country.     5  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 
ESCOTT     ....     Contemporary  England.     3  vols. 
EMERSON      .     .     .     English  Traits. 

TAINE Notes  on  England. 

SMITH      ....     Summer  in  Skye. 

HUBNER  ....     Through  the  British  Empire. 

Fresh,  crisp,  and  lively,  the  observations  are  incisive. 
WHITE'    ....     England  Without  and  Within. 


BEATTIE  ....  Castles  and  Abbeys  of  England. 

CHANDLER  .     .     .  Bicycle  Tour  of  England  and  Wales. 

CLARK      ....  Cowbridge  Etchings. 

CRAIK.     .     .     .     .  Instrumental  Journey  through  Cornwall. 

ELWES     ....  Castles  of  Sussex. 

Five  Years  of  Penal  Servitude. 

HALL Ireland. 

HERSEY   ....  An    Old-fashioned     Journey    through    England 

and  Wales. 

flowELLS     .     .     .  The  Rural  Life  of  England. 

HUN NK WELL    .     .  Lands  of  Scott. 

LAND Oxford  to  London. 

LEE Stratford-on-Avon. 

LEFROY    ....  Ruined  Abbeys  of  Yorkshire. 

LESLIE      ....  Our  River. 

MARTINEAU      .     .  English  Lakes. 

PALMER   ....  The  Tyne,  etc. 

PENNANT      .     .     .  Journey  from  London  to  Isle  of  Wight, 

SILLOWAY    .     .     .  Cathedral  Towns  of  Great  Britain. 


EUROPE  487 

SMITH      ....     Land  of  Outer  Hebrides. 

Description  of  England. 
SUMNER  .     .     .     .     The  Avon. 
STEVENSON  .     .     .     Edinburgh. 

TAYLOR   ....     Old  Halls  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire. 
WALTON  ....     Welsh  Scenery. 

English  Lakes. 
WILSON   ....     Old  Edinburgh. 

Land  of  Burns. 
WINTER  ....     Trip  to  England. 

Holland. 

DE  AMICTS  .    .     .     Holland. 

HARVARD     .     .     .     Picturesque  Holland. 

WOOD Through  Holland.     Illustrated. 


BIRD Land  of  Dykes  and  Windmills. 

BOUGHTON   .     .     .  Sketching- Rambles  in  Holland. 

HARE Holland. 

WARING  ....  A  Farmer's  Vacation.     Illustrated. 

Italy. 

HARE Walks  in  Rome.     2  vols. 

Days  near  Rome.     2  vols. 

Cities  of  Italy.     4  vols. 
HOWELLS      .     .     .     Italian  Journeys. 
MANNING     .     .     .     Italian  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated, 

STORY Vallombrosa. 

TAINE Rome  and  Naples. 

Florence  and  Venice. 

HAWTHORNE  (Mrs.),  Notes  on  England  and  Italy. 
ARNOLD  ....     An  European  Mosaic. 


BENSON    ....     Art  and  Nature  in  Italy. 
BROWN     ....     Life  in  the  Lagoons. 
BIANCIARDI  (Mrs.),    At  Home  in  Italy. 
BARTLETT  ^.     .     .     Pictures  from  Sicily. 


488  METHODS  AND  AIDS  TN  GEOGRAPHY 

BURN Old  Rome. 

CHURCH  ....  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero. 

CARR North  Italian  Folk. 

Shows  the  life  of  the  common  people. 

CROSS Edens  of  Italy. 

DEVEREAUX      .     .  Fair  Italy. 

ELLIOT     ....  An  Idle  Woman  in  Sicily.     2  vols. 

FRESHFIELD     .     .  Italian  Alps. 

FREEMAN     .     .     .  Venice. 

FORBES    ....  Rambles  in  Rome. 

GALLANGA   .     .    .  Italy  Revisited. 

GEBHARTS    .     .     .  Roman  Corners  and  Florentine  Mosaics. 

HILLARD.     .._'..     .  Six  Months  in  Italy.     2  vols. 

HORNER  ....  Walks  in  Florence.     2  vols. 

JARVES     ....  Italian  Rambles. 

NICHOLS  ....  The  Roman  Forum. 

SYMONDS      .     .     .  Sketches  and  Studies  in  Italy.     2  vols. 
Italian  By-ways. 

SCOTT A  Nook  in  the  Apennines. 

TROLLOPE     ...  A  Peep  behind  the  Scenes  at  Rome. 

WELLS     ....  The  Amphitheatre  of  Ancient  Rome. 

WESTROPP   .     .     .  Early  and  Imperial  Rome. 

VILLARI  ....  On  Tuscan  Hills  and  Venetian  Waters. 

YRIARTE  ....  Florence. 

Norway. 

Du  CHAILLU*.     .  The  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun.     2  vols.     Fully 

illustrated. 

VINCENT  ....  Norse,  Lapp,  and  Finn. 

STONE Norway  in  June.     Illustrated. 

PRITCHETTE     .     .  Gamble  Norge.     Fully  illustrated. 

WOOD.     ....  Sweden  and  Norway.     Illustrated.     (Small  ) 

RAE Land  of  the  North  Wind.     Illustrated. 

FORBES    ....  Norway  and  its  Glaciers.     Fully  illustrated. 


ARNOLD  ....  A  Summer  Holiday. 

CATON      ....  A  Summer  in  Norway. 

CATHERINE  .     .     .  The  Fun  on  the  Fjords. 

KENT Norway  to  the  North  Cape. 


EUROPE  489 

McFARLAN  .     .     .     Behind  the  Scenes  in  Norway. 

MACKINNON     .     .     Lapland  Life.     Illustrated. 

SMITH      ....     Tent-Life  with  the  Gypsies.     Illustrated. 

Three  in  Norway.     By  Two  of  Them. 
TYLER      ....     Story  of  a  Scandinavian  Summer. 
WILLIAMS    .     .    .    Through  Norway.     Illustrated. 


Russia. 

WALLACE*  .    .    .     Russia.    2  vols. 

Contains  a  fund  of  information  which  is  authoritative. 

GUILD*    ....     Britons  and  Muscovites.     1888. 

..Contains  entertaining  pen-pictures  of  sights  and  scenes  in  Russia. 

WOHL Land  of  the  Czar. 

Gives  a  full,  complete  account  of  the  people  and  their  history. 
BOUTON    ....     Round  about  to  Moscow.     1887. 

CLIVE Caucasus  (Hunting).     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

SEEBOHM      .     .     .     Siberia.     Fully  illustrated. 
MARVIN    ....     Caspian  Region.     Illustrated. 
Russians  at  Merv.     Illustrated. 

SALA Russia. 

FRESHFIELD     .     .     Central  Caucasus.     Illustrated. 

Contains  a  fine  picture  of  Mount  Elbruz. 

PROCTOR  ....     A  Russian  Journey. 

TROMHOLT  .     .     .     Under  the  Rays  of  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

A  full  description  of  this  phenomena,  and  a  description  of  the  Lapps  and 
Kvaens. 


BUCKLEY      .     .     .  The  Land  of  the  Czar  and  the  Nihilist. 

CHRISTIE      .     .     .  Men  and  Things  in  Russia. 

COAPE A  Prisoner  of  War  in  Russia. 

CHRISTIN     .     .     .  Russia,  Past  and  Present.     Illustrated. 

DIXON      ....  Free  Russia. 

EDWARDS     .     .     .  The  Russians  at  Home  and  Abroad.     2  vuls. 

GALLENGA    ...  A  Summer  Tour  in  Russia. 

GROVE     ....  The  Frosty  Caucasus.     Illustrated. 

GREENE   ....  Army- Life  in  Russia. 

HOFFMAN     .     .     .  Leisure  Hours  in  Russia. 

JOHNSTON     .     .     .  The  Fair  at  Nijni  Novgorod. 
A  Trip  up  the  Volga. 


490         METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

MORLEY  ....  Russian  Life. 

RAE The  White  Sea  Peninsula.     Illustrated. 

STEPNIAK     .     .     .  Underground  Russia. 

ST.  CLAIR    .     .     .  Bulgaria. 

SCHUYLER    .     .     .  Peter  the  Great.     2  vols. 

TILLEY     ....  Russia. 

TOURGENIEF     .     .  Virgin  Soil. 

WOLLEY  ....  Sport  in  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus. 

Spain. 

DE  AMICIS  .     .     .     Spain. 

MANNING     .     .     .     Spanish  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 
LATHROP  *  ...     Spanish  Vistas.     Illustrated. 
HALE*    ....     Seven  Spanish  Cities. 
Sparkling  and  Bright. 
BODFISH  ....     Through  Spain  on  Donkey-back.     Illustrated. 

The  sketches  and  descriptions  are  both  unique,  and  just  what  is  needed  in 
the  schoolroom. 

TAINE The  Pyrenees.     Illustrated. 


BURKE     ....  Spanish  Salt. 

CAMPION      .     .     .  On  Foot  in  Spain. 

DEVERELL    .     .     .  All  around  Spain. 

DAY From  the  Pyrenees,  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules. 

DUNCAN  ....  The  English  in  Spain. 

DOWNES  ....  Spanish  Ways  and  By-ways. 

ELLIOTT  ....  Idle  Women  in  Spain.     2  vols. 

FIELD Ten  Days  in  Spain. 

GALLENGA   .     .     .  Fifteen  Years  in  Spain  and  Portugal.     2  vols. 

HARRISON    .     .     .  Spain  in  Profile. 

HAY     .....  Castilian  Days. 

LOMAS      ....  Sketches  in  Spain. 

Describes  the  art  and  architecture. 

PATCH      ....  Sunny  Spain. 

ROSE Among  the  Spanish  People. 

STONE      .     ,     .     .  Tour  with  Cook  through  Spain. 

THIEBLIN    .    .    .  Spain  and  the  Spaniards.     2  vols. 


EUROPE  491 


Switzerland. 

TYNDALL     .     .     .     Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps.     Illustrated. 

Glaciers  of  the  Alps.     Illustrated. 

Mountaineering.     Illustrated. 

MANNING     .     .     .     Swiss  Pictures.     Fully  illustrated. 
WHYMPER   .     .     .     Scrambles  among  the  Alps. 
BUTLER    ....     Alps  and  Sanctuaries.     Illustrated. 
GAFFER    ....     Switzerland  and  Lake  Gonstance.     Fully  illus. 
WILSON    ....     Alpine  Ascents. 

Gallery  of  the  Celebrated  Landscapes  of  Switzer 
land.     Photos. 

BYERS Switzerland  and  the  Swiss. 

DENT Above  the  Snow-Line. 

DIXON      ....     Switzerland. 

GESSELL-FKI.S-  .     .     Switzerland:  Its  Scenery  and  People. 

GIRDLKSTONE  .     .     The  High  Alps. 

LE  MESURIEN  .     .     Impromptu  Ascent  of  Mont  Blanc. 

MALLKSON    .     .     .     Rambles  in  Alpine  Lands.     Illustrated. 

MARCET  ....     Swiss  and  Southern  Health  Resorts. 

WESTALL      .     .     .     Tales  and  Traditions  of  Switzerland. 


Turkey. 

DE  AMICIS  .     .     .  Constantinople.    . 

HAM  LIN  ....  Twenty  Years  among  the  Turks. 

McCoAN  ....  Our  New  Protectorate. 

GALLENGA   .     .     .  Turks,  Costumes.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

POOL People  of  Turkey.     2  vols. 

BRACKETT    .     .     .  Conquest  of  Turkey.     Illustrated. 

GLADSTONE.     .     .  Slavonic  Provinces  of  Turkey.     2  vols.     Illus 


ARNOLD  ....  From  the  Levant. 

BAKER      .     .     .     .  Turkey. 

DAVIS Life  in  Asiatic  Turkey.     Illustrated. 

EVANS      ....  Through  Bosnia  on  Foot.     Illustrated. 

FRAZER    ....  Turkish  Highlands.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

GAMBIA   ....  Servia.     Fully  illustrated. 

NEWTON  ....  Travels  in  the  Levant.     2  vols. 


492  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 


Miscellaneous. 

RECLUS    ....     Europe.     5  vols.     Fully  illustrated. 
HOLMES  ....     Our  Hundred  Days  in  Europe. 
PITMAN    ....     European  Breezes. 

The  author  describes,  in  a  very  fresh  and  sparkling  manner,  her  travels  in 
Germany,  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Switzerland.     The  book  is  full  of  fun. 

RAMSAY  ....     Stanford's  Compendium  on  Europe. 

A  full  cyclopaedia. 

GUILD*  ....     Over  the  Ocean. 

Abroad  Again. 

England,  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Germany,  etc.,  are  herein  graphically 
depicted. 

DARWIN  ....  What  Darwin  saw. 

KNEELAND  .     .    .  Iceland. 

WOLSKI  ....  Poland. 

WARNER  ....  Saunterings. 

SARGEANT    .     .     .  New  Greece. 

HARE Holland  and  Scandinavia.    Illustrated.    (Small.) 

FIELD Killarney  to  Golden  Horn.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

THOMPSON  .     .     .  Beaten  Paths. 

An  account  of  an  European  tour  made  by  a  young  lady,  in  company  with 
six  other  ladies,  "  all  alone." 

ALDRICH  ....  From  Ponkapog  to  Pesth. 

BARTQI Pictures  of  Europe. 

SNIDER    ....  A  Walk  in  Hellas. 

FARREN  ....  A  Tour  in  Greece.     Fully  illustrated. 

WARING  ....  Tyrol.     Illustrated.     (Small.) 


ANDERSON  .     .     .  Life  in  Denmark. 

BAKER     ....  In  the  East. 
Cyprus. 

BIRD The  Land  of  Dykes  and  Windmills. 

BARING-GOULD     .  Iceland.     Fully  illustrated. 

BARTON    ....  Ultima  Thule.     2  vols. 

BRASSEY  ....  Sunshine  and  Storm  in  the  East. 

BURKLEY      .     .     .  Bulgaria. 

Cox The  Isles  of  the  Princess.     (Marmosa.)  , 

CHIROL    ....  Twixt  Greek  and  Turk. 


EUROPE  493 

COLES Summer  Travelling  in  Iceland.     Illustrated. 

CROSS Round  about  the  Carpathians. 

CUM  MING     .     .     .  From  the  Hebrides  to  the  Himalayas.     2  vols. 

Fully  illustrated. 

COPPER    ....  Shores  and  Cities  of  the  Border  Sea.    Illustrated. 

CONYBEARE      .     .  Iceland. 

DIXON      ....  British  Cyprus. 

DARLEY  ....  Sketches  Abroad.     Fully  illustrated. 

FONBLANQUE   .     .  Five  Weeks  in  Iceland. 

GAGE A  Leisurely  Journey  in  Europe.     1886. 

GEIKIE     ....  The  Great  Ice-Age. 

HUNT  (II.)    .     .     .  Bits  of  Travel  abroad. 

HARRINGTON    .     .  Afterglow  European  Travel. 

HARRIMAN    ...  In  the  Orient. 

A  chatty  narrative  of  travel. 

HOLDEN  ....  A      Summer     Jaunt     through     Europe.      (Dr. 
Tourjee's  party). 

KAY Hungary. 

LONG Cyprus. 

LOCK Iceland. 

MOLLY     ....  The  Passion  Play. 

O'MEARA      .     .     .  Story  of  Life  in  Russian  Poland. 

NINDE      .     .     .     .  Two  alone  in  Europe. 

OSWALD  ....  By  Fell  and  Fjord.     Iceland. 

RODWELL     .     .     .  Southern  Europe.     Fully  illustrated. 

SEDDALL.     .     .     .  Malta,  Past  and  Present. 

ST.  CLAIR     .    .     .  Bulgaria. 

SHAIP Up  in  the  North. 

SMITH      ....  Tent-Life  with  English  Gypsies. 

Glimpses  of  Greek  Life  and  Society. 

THOMPSON    .     .     .  Through  Cyprus  with  the  Camera.     Fully  illus. 

TFSSOT      ....  Unknown  Hungary.     2  vols. 

WHITE     ....  Holidays  in  Tyrol. 

WRIGHT  ....  Adventures  in  Servia. 

TUCKER   ....  Life  and  Society  in  Eastern  Europe. 

Describss  the  different  classes  and  conditions  of  people  in  Hungary. 


494  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

OCEANICA 

Australia. 

RUSDEN   ....     History  of  Australia. 

Australian  Handbook. 

BALLOU    ....     Under  the  Southern  Cross.     1888. 
Through  Tasmania,  Samoa,  Sandwich  Islands,  and  Australia. 

EDEN Australia. 

Victoria  in  1880.     Fully  illustrated. 
WALLACE     .     .     .     Stanford's  Compendium. 
A  full  cyclopaedia. 

The  Malay  Archipelago.     Illustrated. 
VINCENT  ....     Through  and  through  the  Tropics. 


BONWTCK      .     .     .  Australia. 

DAWSON  ....  Australian  Aborigines. 

GRANT     ....  Bush-Life  in  Queensland.     2  vols. 

POWELL  ....  New  Homes.     Fully  illustrated. 

PRAED      ....  Australia.     Illustrated. 

ROBINSON     .     .     .  New  South  Wales. 

SMYTH     .          .     .  Australia.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

STERLING     ...  A  Ride  in  North  Queensland. 

WARBURTON     .     .  Across  Australia. 

VINCENT  ....  Thirty  Thousand  Miles  of  Travel. 

Miscellaneous. 

WALLACE*.     .     .     Island  Life. 

BRASSEY  ....     Tahiti.     Fine  photos. 

BOCK   .     .     .     .     .     Head  Hunter  of  Borneo.     Colored  illustrations. 

COOPER*      .     .     .     Coral  Lands.     2  vols.     Photos. 

CUMMINGS*     .     .     At  Home  in  Fiji.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

Fire  Fountains.     2  vols.     (Hawaii.)    Illustrated. 

A  Lady's  Cruise.     2  vols.     Photos. 
MACLEOD      .     .     .     The  Far  East.     Fully  illustrated. 
VAN  HOCHKLETTE.  New  Zealand.     Colored  illustrations. 
ROMILLY.     .     .     .     The  Western  Pacific  and  New  Guinea. 

Notes  on  the  natives,  Christian  and  cannibal. 


THE  WORLD  495 

TURNER  ....     Samoa. 

BRADSHAW  .     .     .     New  Zealand  as  it  is. 

FORBES    ....     A     Naturalist's     Wanderings     in    the     Eastern 

Archipelago. 
The  homes,  habits,  customs,  and  amusements  of  the  semi-civilized  people. 

BONWICK     .     „     .     Tasmania.     Illustrated. 


BIRD The  Hawaian  Archipelago. 

BOWRING      ...  A  Visit  to  the  Philippine  Islands. 

COAN Life  in  Hawaii. 

COOTE      ....  Wanderings  South  and  East.     Fully  illustrated. 

UE  ALBERTIS   .     .  New  Guinea.     2  vols. 

DE  RICCI      .     .     .  Fiji. 

FORBES    ....  Two  Years  in  Fiji. 

FRANCIS  ....  Isles  of  the  Pacific. 

GIRONIERE  .     .     .  Philippine  Islands. 

HOPKINS.     .     .     .  Sandwich  Islands. 

JAGOR Travels  in  the  Philippines. 

JACOB Borneo  —  Sarawak.     2  vols. 

LYNE New  Guinea.     Illustrated. 

Observations  of  scenery  and  people,  with  good  pictures. 

MEADE     ....  New  Zealand.     Colored  illustrations. 

MUNDY    ....  Boiling  Springs.     (New  Zealand.)     Photos. 

PALMER  ....  Kidnapping  in  South  Seas. 

PIKE Mauritius.     Fully  illustrated. 

POWELI Cannibals  of  New  Britain. 

STODDARD    .     .     .  Summer  Cruising  in  the  South  Sea.     Illustrated 

ST.  JOHNSON     .     .  Camping  among  Cannibals. 

TINNU      ....  New  Zealand.     Illustrated. 

WEEKS     ....  Among  the  Azores. 

THE   WORLD 

RECLUS     ....     The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants.     12  vols.     Very 

fully  illustrated. 

Europe,  5  vols. ;  Asia,  4  vols. ;  Africa,  3  vols. 

Appleton  &  Co.  have  given  the  woild,  in  these  vo'umes,  the  largest  and 
best  illustrated  encyclopaedia  of  geography  ever  published. 

STANFORD    .     .     .     Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel.     6  vols. 

Illustrated. 
This  is  the  second  best  encyclopaedia  of  geography.     Published  in  London. 


496  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

TAYLOR    ....     Library  of  Travels.     6  voLs. 

Japan,  Central  Asia,  Arabia,  Siam,  Central  Africa,  South  Africa. 

Foreign  Countries  and  British  Colonies.     20  vols. 

or  more.     Illustrated.     (Small.) 

One  volume  on  each  of  these  countries:  Denmark,  Greece,  Switzer- 
land, Austria,  Rus-ia,  Persia,  Japan,  Peru,  Canada,  Sweden  and  Norway, 
West  Indies,  New  Zealand,  France,  Egypt,  Spain,  Turkey  in  Asia,  Aus- 
tralia, Holland. 

RECLUS    ....     Bird's- Eye  View  of  the  World.     Fully  illustrated. 

920  pp.     Published  by  Ticknor  &  Co. 
PUTNAM  ....     Library  of  Travel.     12  vols. 

Spain;  Siberia;  Constantinople;  Holland;  England;  Abode  of  Snow;  The 
Great  Fur  Land;  South  Africa;  The  Round  Trip;  Norse,  Lapp,  and  Finn; 
Corea;  Rocky  Mountains. 

BROWN     ....     The  Countries  of  the  World. 

Vol.  i.,  North  America;  vol.  ii.,  United  States,  Mexico,  and  West  Indies; 
vol.  iii.,  Central  and  Southern  America;  vol.  iv.,  Oceanica;  vol.  v.,  Asia; 
vol.  vi.,  Africa. 

PRIME Around  the  World.     Illustrated. 

THOMSON     .     .     .  Voyage  of  the  Challenger.     Illustrated. 

Wanderings  in  Four  Continents.     Illustrated. 

BALLOU*      .     .     .  Due  West. 

SEWARD  ....  Travels  round  the  World.     Illustrated. 

COFFIN     ....  Our  New  Way  round  the  World.     Illustrated. 

LEYLAND      .     .     .  Round  the  World  in  124  Days. 

MANNING     .     .     .  The  Desert  World. 

FROUDE    ....  Oceana. 

A  visit  by  the  great  historian  to  the  English  colonies  of  the  world. 

SMITH      ....  The  Wonderful  Cities  of  the  World. 

SHEPARD      .     .     .  Great  Cities  of  the  Modern  World.     Illustrated. 

WHYMPEK    .     .     .  The  Fisheries  of  the  World. 

BROWN     ....  Forests  of  the  World.     8  vols. 

Forests  of  England,  Russia,  Norway,  Finland,  South  Africa,  etc. 


ADAMS     ....  Heroes  of  Travel. 

BAINBRIDGE     .     .  Round  the  World. 

BEAUVOIR    .     .     .  Voyage  round  the  World. 

BRASSEY  ....  Voyage  in  the  Sunbeam. 

BRIDGES  ....  A  Lady's  Travels  round  the  World.    Illustrated. 

GRAY  .     .     .     .  •  .  Round  the  World. 

HINCHLIFF  .     .     .  Round  the  World.     Illustrated. 


BOOKS  IN  PAPER  COVERS  497 

HINGTON      .     .     .  Round  the  World.     2  vols.     Illustrated. 

HUMBOLDT  .     .     .  Travels  and  Researches. 

HUBNER  .     .     .     .  A  Ramble  round  the  World.     2  vols. 

HODDEN  ....  All  the  World  over.     2  vols. 

JONES-BARRY    .     .  Round  the  World. 

PEEBLES  ....  Around  the  World. 

SIMPSON  ....  A  Journey  round  the  World. 

SPRY Cruise  of  the  Challenger.     Illustrated. 

VERNE      ....  Around  the  World  in  Eighty  Days. 

WILKINS.     .     .     .  Curiosities  of  Travel.     2  vols. 

Vol.  i.,  Polar  World,  Alps,  etc.;    vol.  ii.,  Caverns,  Volcanoes,  Geysers, 
Earthquakes. 

BOOKS  IN  PAPER  COVERS 

A  small  list  of  books  of  travel,  in  paper  covers,  is  added, 
with  price  and  publisher,  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  who 
have  no  ready  access  to  public  libraries.  These  books  can 
be  ordered  by  mail,  the  money  being  sent  in  postage-stamps. 

BIRD Rocky  Mountains.     Putnam.     50  cts. 

AMICIS     ....     Studies  of  Paris.     Putnam.     50  cts. 

HUOD Up  the  Rhine.     Putnam.     50  cts. 

JARVES     ....     Italian  Rambles.     Putnam.     50  cts. 
KENNAN  ....    Tent-Life  in  Siberia.     Putnam.     50  cts. 
ROBINSON     .     .     .     The  Great  Fur  Land.     Putnam.     50  cts. 
GEARY     ....     Through  Asiatic  Turkey.     Harpers.     15  cts. 

People  of  Turkey.     Harpers.     15  cts. 

Russians  of  To-day.     Harpers.     10  cts. 
MARVIN   ....     At  the  Gates  of  Herat.    Illus.     Harpers.    20  cts. 

Georgia  Scenes.     Illus.     Harpers.     20  cts. 

Brooklyn  Bridge.     Illus.     Harpers.     20  cts. 

DE  LEON      .     .    .     Egypt  under  its  Khedives.     Harpers.     20  cts. 
HATTON  ....     To-day  in  America.     Harpers.     20  cts. 
STONE      ....     New  Guinea.     Harpers.     10  cts. 
LUCAS      ....     Zulus.     Harpers.     10  cts. 
WILSON    ....     Abode  of  Snow.     Putnam.     50  cts. 
WOODWARD     .     .     Hudson  River.     Illustrated.    Appleton.     50  cts. 

Pacific  Railroad.     Illus.     Appleton.     75  cts. 
BURNABY      ...     A  Ride  to  Khiva.     Munro.     20  cts. 
DRYSDALE    ...     In  Sunny  Lands.    Harpers.    Illustrated.    25  cts. 


49^  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

HEADLEY  .  .  .  Darien  Exploring  Expedition.  Illustrated.  Har- 
pers. 15  cts. 

STEPNIAK     .     .     .     Russia  under  the  Tzars.    Harpers.   Illus.   20  cts. 

DAVIES  ....  Handbook  on  Africa.  Illustrated.  Holiness 
Book  Company,  Reading,  Mass.  25  cts. 

HYATT     ....     Worms  and  Crustacea.     Heath  &  Co.     25  cts. 

The    Oyster,  Clam,   and   Other   Common   Mol- 

lusks.     25  cts. 
About  Pebbles.     10  cts. 

BAKER  ....  Eight  Years'  Wanderings  in  Ceylon.  Lovell. 
20  cts. 

ZEIGLER  ....  Heart  of  the  Alleghanies.  Alfred  Williams  & 
Co.,  Raleigh,  N.C.  $1.00. 

OBER Mexican  Resources.     Estes  &  Lauriat.     50  cts. 

STRAHORN  ...  To  the  Rockies  and  Beyond.  The  New  West 
Publishing  Company,  Omaha.  50  cts. 

BALLANTYNE    .     .    Erling,  the  Bold.    Lovell  &  Co.     20  cts. 

ROBINSON     .     .     .     Under  the  Sun.     Roberts  Brothers.     50  cts. 

BUCKINGHAM  .  .  Observations  upon  the  Korean  Coast,  Japanese- 
Korean  Ports,  and  Siberia.  Office  of  Bureau 
of  Navigation,  Navy  Department. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  STORIES  AND  NOVELS 

Many  of  our  best  novels  describe  very  accurately  the  peo- 
ple of  the  country  in  which  the  scene  of  the  story  is  laid, 
as,  for  instance,  Middlemarch,  by  George  Eliot ;  others 
describe  both  the  people  and  the  scenery  of  the  country, 
as  Black's  Princess  of  Thule.  Many  juvenile  stories 
describe  accurately  some  country,  as  Ballantyne's  Black 
Ivory.  A  list  of  such  stories  is  given  below,  for  some  chil- 
dren can  only  become  interested  in  travel  by  the  help  of 
the  romantic.  The  teacher  should  use  good  judgment  in 
recommending  this  course  of  reading,  and  guard  it  carefully 
against  abuse.  No  child  should  be  permitted  to  read  more 
than  one  story  a  term. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  STORIES  AND  NOVELS  499 

North  America. 

NOTE.  —  f  Excellent  juvenile  stories. 

BALLANTYNE    .    .    Hudson's  Bay.t 

Every-day  life  in  the  wilds  of  North  America. 

STOBLES  ....     The  Cruise  of  the  Snow-Bird. t 
A  Story  of  Arctic  adventure. 

Hans  in  his  Northern  Home. 
Describes  Dr.  Kane's  expedition. 

BALLANTYNE    .    .     Snowflakes  and  Sunbeams.f 

Young  fur-traders. 

MELVILLE    .     .     .     Moby-Dick.t 

Whaling  adventures. 

HALL Adrift  in  the  Ice-Fields.t 

HUETT     ....     Morgan,  the  Buccaneer. 
Freebooters  in  the  Antilles. 

MACY The  Log  of  the  Arethusa. 

Actual  life  on  the  ocean. 

JACKSON  (HELEN),     Romona. 

The  Indian  question,  and  California  scenery. 

HAWTHORNE    .     .     Love,  or  a  Name. 

Workings  of  New- York  City  politics. 

HOLBROOK  .     .     .     Ten  Years  among  the  Mail-Bags. 
PHELPS  (Miss)  .     .     The  Silent  Partner. 
BELLAMY      .    .     .     The  Breton  Mills. 

Strife  between  labor  and  capital. 

CRAWFORD  ...  An  American  Politician. 

ALDEN     ....  Four  Girls  at  Chautauqua.f 

EGGLESTON  .     .    .  Circuit  Rider. 

HALE Ten  Times  One  is  Ten. 

BOLTON    ....  The  Present  Problem. 

TRTPP Student-Life  at  Harvard. 

HOWARD.     .     .     .  Donald's  School-days. T 

BORDEEN      .     .     .  Roderick  Hume. 

HOWELLS     .     .     .  Their  Wedding  Journey. 

HART Miriam  Coffin. 

Whaling  and  sea  life. 

BUTLER    ....     Red  Cloud. 

A  story  of  the  great  prairie. 

TAYLOR   ....     The  Story  of  Kennett. 
Country  life  among  Friends  in  Pennsylvania. 


500  METHODS   AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

KINSMAN      .     .    .     Cadet-Life  at  West  Point. 
BURNETT  (Mrs.)    .     Through  One  Administration. 
EGGLESTON  .     .     .     The  Hoosier  School-master. 
COOPER    ....     Leather  Stocking  Tales. 

Descriptions  of  Indian  character  and  habits. 
MATHEWS     .     .     .     Enchanted  Moccasins. 

Authentic  legends  of  American  Indians. 

RUSSELL  ....     The  Frozen  Pirate. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  and  describes  very  vividly  polar 
life. 

The  Wreck  of  the  Grosvenor. 

A  charming  sea-story. 

ELIOT Middlemarch. 

English  life  fully  described. 

BROOKS    ....     The  Boy  Emigrants.! 
Overland  travel  to  California. 

CABLE      ....     The  Grandissimes. 

A  story  of  Creole  life. 

KINGSTON    ...  In  the  Wilds  of  Florida. 

THORPE  ....  The  Hive  of  the  "  Bee  Hunter." 

IMLAY The  Emigrants. 

Banditti  of  the  Prairies. 

HALL  .    -.    .     .     .  Legends  of  the  West. 

ROBB Western  Border- Life.t 

PYRNELLE    .     .     .  Diddie,  Dumps,  and  Tot.f 

Plantation  child-life. 

FARRAR   ....     Eastward  Holt 

A  trip  of  Boston  boys  to  the  wilds  of  Maine. 
HIGGINSON  .     .     .     Malbone. 

Describes  Newport  life. 
SCHWATKA  .     .     .    The  Children  of  the  Cold.f 

Life  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

BALLANTYNE    .     .    The  Dog  Crusoe. t 

Describes  prairie-life. 

The  Golden  Dream.t 
Adventures  in  the  Far  West. 

THACKERAY     .     .    The  Virginians. 

t     Scenes  in  London  and  Virginia. 

WELLCOME  .     .     .     The  Story  of  Mellakahtla. 

An  account  of  the  work  of  William  Duncan's  work  among  a  savage  tribe 
of  Indians  in  British  Columbia. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  STORIES  AND  NOVELS  501 

WINTHROP  .     .     .     John  Brent. 

Excellent  description  of  Rocky-Mountain  scenery. 

IRVING    ....     Captain  Bonneville. 
UNDERWOOD    .     .     Lord  of  Himself. 

Describes  Kentucky. 

A  Lady's  Ranch-Life  in  Montana.     1887. 
Interesting  letters  of  her  life,  roughing  it  in  the  Far  West. 

BALLANTYNE^.     .     Man  on  the  Ocean.t 

This  book  describes  for  boys  the  different  kinds  of  ocean-craft,  from  a  raft, 
to  the  "  Great  Eastern." 

DANA Two  Years  Before  the  Mast.t 

STODDARD   .     .    .    Two  Arrows.t 

A  charming  Indian  story  for  boys. 

Europe. 

HOWELLS     .     .     .     Venetian  Life. 

Delightful  pictures  of  social  and  commercial  life  in  Venice. 

BALLANTYNE    .     .     Chasing  the  Sun.f 

Rambles  in  Norway. 

SCOTT The  Pirate. 

Picture  of  life  in  the  Orkneys. 

Anne  of  Geierstein. 

Contains  a  description  of  Swiss  scenery,  although  Scott  had  never  visited 
Switzerland. 

A  Legend  of  Montrose. 
The  scene  is  near  the  Trossachs,  Scotland. 

Rob  Roy. 
Contrasts  the  wild  Highland  life  with  that  of  Glasgow. 

The  Heart  of  Mid-Lothian. 
The  scene  is  mostly  in  Scotland. 

France. 

LONGFELLOW   .    .  Outre-Mer. 

THACKERAY     .    .  The  Village  on  the  Cliff. 

ELLIS Marie. 

SIKES  .     .    .     .     .  Chateau  Frissoe. 

MONCRIEF    .     .     .  The  Lycee  Boys.f 

French  School-life. 

DE  WITT     .    .     .  Motherless.! 


5O2  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

BULWER  ....  The  Parisians. 

KIMBALL      .     .     .  Romance  of  Student-life  Abroad. 

MUSGRAVE   .     .     .  Ten  Days  in  a  French  Parsonage. 

SUE The  Mysteries  of  Paris. 

England. 

ADAMS     ....     School-days  at  Kingscourt. 
MITFORD      .     .     .     Our  Village. 

JAMES The  Smuggler. 

GWYNNE  ....     School  for  Fathers. 

Fox  Hunting. 
MARSHALL  .     .    .     Monsell  Digby. 

Country  life  in  a  manufacturing  district. 

EGAN Life  in  London. 

ELIOT Adam  Bede. 

IRVING     ....     Bracebridge  Hall. 
BALLANTYNE    .    .    Deep  Down.f 

A  story  of  life  among  the  mines  of  Cornish. 

BLACK A  Princess  of  Thule. 

Macleod  of  Dare. 
Vivid  descriptions  of  scenery,  life,  and  manners  among  the  Scotch. 

AGUILAR  ....     Home  Influence.! 

Describes  beautifully  a  happy  English  home  under  the  best  of  influences. 
BLACKMORE      .     .    *Mary  Anerley. 

Describes  the  coast  of  England  and  smuggling  operations. 

South  America. 

FERNON  ....    The  Reign  of  Rosas. 
KINGSTON    ...     On  the  Banks  of  the  Amazon. 
DAUNT     ....     Frank  Redcliffe.f 

Travel  and  adventure  in  Venezuela. 

HASSAUREK      .    .    The  Secret  of  the  Andes. 
MONCRIEF    .     .     .     The  Pampas. 

Adventures  in  the  Argentine  Republic. 

REID Afloat  in  the  Forest. 

BALLANTYNE    .    .     Martin  Rattler. t 

A  boy's  adventures  in  the  forests  of  Brazil. 


FRENCH   WORKS  503 

Central  America. 

KINGSLEY    .     .    .     Westward  Ho ! 
BADEAU   ....     Conspiracy. 

Spanish  diplomacy  and  American  politics. 
VICTOR    ....     Last  Days  of  Tul. 

Lost  Cities  of  Yucatan. 
WARBURTON    .    .     Darien. 

Buccaneers  of  Spanish  Main. 

Mexico. 
WALLACE     .    .    .    The  Fair  God. 

BIART Adventures  of  a  Young  Naturalist.! 

OBER The  Silver  City. 

The  scene  of  this  story  is  laid  in  Central  America. 

Africa. 

EBERS An  Egyptian  Princess. 

Describes  very  accurately  life  in  Egypt  long  ago. 

The  Bride  of  the  Nile. 

Uarda. 

Serapis. 
HAGGARD     .    .    .    Jess. 

This  story  describes  scenes  and  events  among  the  Kafirs  in  South  Africa. 
It  is  a  plain,  simple  story,  and  quite  different  from  others  by  the  same  author. 

VERNE     ....     Five  Weeks  in  a  Balloon. 

Discoveries  in  Africa  by  three  Englishmen. 

FRENCH  AND  GERMAN  WORKS 

Some  of  the  best  books  of  travel  are  published  every  year 
by  the  French  and  Germans.  A  few  of  the  choicest  and 
most  recent  are  catalogued  below.  All  of  these  books  can 
be  found  under  their  author's  name  in  the  Bates  Hall  of  the 
Boston  Public  Library. 

French. 

DELAPORTE  .     .     .     Voyage  au  Cambodge.     Fine  illustrations. 
PIASSETSKY  .     .     .     Voyage  a  Travers  la  Mongolie  et  la  Chine. 

A  full  account,  with  sketches,  of  a  journey  from  Kiachta  through  Mongolia 
to  Peking,  and  other  places  m  China. 


504  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

COTTEAU  ....     Un  Touriste  dans  1'Extreme  Orient. 

The  author  describes  his  visits  to  the  great  cities  of  Japan,  China,  and  Indo- 
China. 

RECLUS  ....  Nouvelle  Geographic  Universelle  de  1'Afrique 
Occidentale,  Archipels,  Atlantique,  etc. 
1887. 

Histoire  d'une  Montague. 
La  Terre  a  Vol  d'Oiseau.     Illustrated. 
France,  Algerie,  et  Colonie.     Illustrated. 
Voyage  aux  Regions  Minieresde  laTransylvanie 

Occidentale. 

MONTANO     .     .     .     Voyage  aux  Philippines  et  en  Malaisie. 
A  welcome  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  an  interesting  island-group. 

MOSER A  Travers  1'Asie  Centrale. 

It  deals  largely  with  the  Khirgiz,  Turkomans,  and  other  native  races. 

LE  BRUN-RENAUD,  Les  Possessions  Fransaises  de  I'Afrique  Occi- 
dentale. 1886. 

LEROY-BEAULIEU  .    L'Algerie  et  la  Tunisie.    1887. 
VIGNON    ....     La  France  dans  I'Afrique  du  Nord. 
FONCIN     ....     Geographic  Generale.     1888. 

This  geography  conveys  broad  views  of  the  subject,  and  keeps  in  mind  the 
intimate  relation  between  physical  and  political  geography. 

LE  BON    ....     Les  Civilisations  de  1'Inde.     Illustrated.     1887. 
JACOLLIOT    .     .     .     Voyage  aux  Pays  Mysterieux. 
CERESOLE     .     .    .     Legendes  des  Alpes  Vaudoises.     Illustrated. 
BRERSON  ....     Bolivia:  Sept  Annees  d'Explorations. 
VAUJANY  ....     Alexandrie  et  la  Basse- figypte.     Illustrated. 
HUEBNER      ...     A  Travers  1'Empire  Britannique.     2  vols. 
MORAES    ....     Africa  Occidental,  Album. 

An  album  of  photo-lithographs  taken  in  South-western  Africa.     The  views 
are  well  chosen,  and  represent  the  scenery,  types  of  natives,  etc*. 

WAUTERS      .     .     .     Le  Congo  an  Point  de  Vue  ficonomique. 

The  author  gives  a  geographical  account  of  the  Congo  State  and  neighbor- 
ing regions. 

WOUVERMANS  .     .     Liberia,    Histoire   de   la   Fondation   d'un   fitat 

Negre  Libre. 
A  rosy  picture  of  the  Negro  state. 

MANHEIMER      .     .     Du  Cap  au  Zambeze. 


GERMAN  WORKS  505 


German. 

HEYFELDER  .     .     .     Transkaspien  und  seine  Eisenbahn.     1888. 
GIJRSFELDT  .     .     .     Reise  in  den  Andes  von  Chile  und  Argentinian. 

1888. 

A  valuable  book  describing  a  careful  exploration  of  the  South  American 
Cordilleras  between  32°  and  35°  S.  Lat.  The  author  ascended  from  Santiago. 

SCHMIDT  ....  Sansibar.  Em  ostafrikanisches  Culturbild. 
1888. 

The  author  describes  the  town,  the  houses,  and  the  people.  It  is  the  most 
recent  book  on  the  island. 

EGLI Geschichte    der  geographischen   Namenkuncle. 

1886. 
FINSCH     ....     Ueber    Bekleidung,  Schmuck,  und   Tatowirung 

der     Papuos    der    Sudostkiiste     von     Neu 

Guinea. 
ZOLLER     ....     Forschungsreisen  in  der  deutschen  Colonie  Ka- 

merun.     3  vols. 
These  volumes  describe  the  German  possessions  in  West  Africa. 

PAULITSCHKE    .     .     Die  Sudanlander  nach  den  gegenwartigen  Stande 

der  Kenntniss. 
An  instructive  resume  of  the  whole  Sudan  region. 

NORDENSKIOLD     .     Gronland. 

It  gives  an  account  of  the  journeys  into  the  interior  of  Greenland  between 
68°  and  69°  N. 

LINDAU    ....     Aus  der  Neuen  Welt. 

HEIM Handbuch  der  Gletscherkunde. 

Gives  scientific  theories,  facts,  and  observations  concerning  glaciers.  Pro- 
fessor Heim  is  the  professor  of  geology  in  the  Swiss  Polytechnic  and  Univer- 
sity of  Zurich. 

Die  Balearen.     Fully  illustrated. 

Contains  the  most  charming  illustrations,  giving  a  complete  idea  of  the 
physical  aspects  of  the  country. 

LENZ Timbuktu.  Reise  durch  Marokko,  die  Sahara 

und  den  Suda-n,  etc.  Illustrated. 

LOEWENBERG  .  .  Geschichte  der  geographischen  Entdeckungsrei- 
sen. 

ZAFFAUK  ....    Die  Erdrinde  und  ihre  Formen.     1885. 


506  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


REFERENCE  BOOKS 

American  Almanac.  Spofford,  librarian  of  Congress.  Published 
annually  by  American  News  Company.  Price,  $1.50. 

Atlas  of  Physical  Geography.     Bryce. 

Commerce.     Yeats.     1887. 

Compendium  of  Geography  (6  vols.  illus.).  Price,  $6  per  vol 
Published  by  Stanford,  London. 

Condition  of  Nations  (statistics,  1878-80).     Kalb. 

Cyclopaedia  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Navigation.  Homans. 
Price,  $7.50.  Published  by  Harpers. 

Cyclopedia  of  Geography.     Charles  Knight,  London,  1856. 

Dictionary  of  Commerce  and  Commercial  Navigation,  1882.  McCul- 
loch,  London. 

English  Fisheries.     Parliament  Reports,  No.  15.     1886. 

Etymological  Derivations  of  Geography.     Blackie. 

Geographie  Universelle,  la  Terre  et  les  Hommes,  par  Reclus  (10  vols.). 

General  Gazetteer.  Brooks.  Published  by  Ward,  Leek,  &  Co., 
London. 

Gazetteer  of  the  World.     Published  by  Lippincott  &  Co.     Price,  $10. 

General  Dictionary  of  Geography.  Johnston.  Published  by 
Longmans,  London. 

Historical  Geography  of  Europe.  Freeman.  Published  by  Long- 
mans,  London. 

Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States.     1888.     Patton. 

Statesman's  Year  Book  (statistics).  Martin.  Published  annually, 
London. 

Trade  and  Finance  Annual.      Barkers. 

United  States  Fisheries  (natural  history  of  aquatic  animals). 

Words  and  Places  (etymological  illustration  of  geography).    Taylor. 


COSTLY  ILLUSTRATED  BOOKS 

Thebes.     (Photos.)     Abney. 

Eluna.     5  vols.     (Photos.)     Burgess. 

Tour  in  Mexico.     Bondelier. 

Monument  de  Ninive.     5  vols. 

New  York  and  other  Obelisks.     Gorringe. 

Spain.     Davillier.  ^ 

Egypt.    Ebers. 


COSTLY  ILLUSTRATED  BOOKS  507 

The  East.     (Colored  illustrations.)     Field. 

The  Fables.     Fontaine. 

Works  of  France.     5  vols.     (Large  photos.) 

Tour  de  France.     2  vols. 

Les  Chateaux,  France.     2  vols. 

Royal  Photo  Album,  India.     (100  photos.) 

Imperial  Assemblage,  Delhi. 

La  Hollande.     Harvard. 

La  Flandre.     Harvard. 

Ancient  Architecture  in  Hindoostan.     2  vols. 

Les  Hindous.     (English  translation.     Colored  illustrations.) 

Japan.     (German  edition.)     Heine. 

Palestine.     French.     4  vols. 

Jerusalem.     (Photos.) 

Le  Tour  du  Monde. 

Earth  and  its  Inhabitants.     Reclus. 

Etchings  on  the  Mosel. 

Mummies.     (Photos.)     Mespero. 

Travels  in  South  America.     2  vols.     Marcoy. 

Mountain,  Lake,  and  River.     North  America. 

Voyage  en  Perse.     6  vols. 

Rambles  in  Norway.     Pritchette. 

Paris. 

Picturesque  Europe. 

Picturesque  America. 

India.     Rousselet. 

The  Rhine. 

Rheinfahrt. 

Bavarian  Highlands.     Schmid. 

Sinai.     (Photos.) 

Switzerland.     (Photos.) 

China.     (Photos.)     4  vols. 

Jerusalem.     (Photos.)     Tristram. 

Unser  Vaterland. 

Nile  Sketches.     (Colored  illustrations.)     Werner. 

Jerusalem.     Wilson. 

Rambles  in  Northern  India.     (Photos.)     Wilson. 


508  METHODS  AND  AIDS   IN  GEOGRAPHY 

RECREATION  QUESTIONS  IN  GEOGRAPHY,  FOR  LEISURE   MOMENTS 

1.  What  is  an  isobar? 

2.  What  is  an  isotherm  ? 

3.  How  are  winds  named  ? 

4.  Why  is  Cape  Horn  so  called  ? 

5.  Does  one  feel  warmer  at  the  top,  or  bottom,  of  a  hill  ? 

6.  When  are  dog-days,  and  why  so  called  ? 

7.  Do  the  moon  and  sun  rise  in  the  same  place? 

8.  What  country  contains  the  most  coal  ? 

9.  Which  are  older,  the  rivers  of  Florida  or  those  of  Massa- 
chusetts ? 

10.  What  is  a  tidal  wave  ? 

11.  How  can  delicate  organisms  exist  under  the  enormous 
pressure  at  great  depths  of  the  sea? 

12.  In  what  kind  of  rocks  are  fossils  found  ? 

13.  Is  snow  ever  seen  in  the  tropics? 

14.  What  is  the  snow  line? 

15.  Where  is  the  Height  of  Land? 

16.  What-is  the  difference  between  mosses  and  lichens  ? 

17.  Are  there  many  glaciers  within  the  Arctic  circle  ? 
iS.^Does  dew/#//like  rain  ? 

19.  What  is  the  difference  between  sand  and  loam  ? 

20.  Where  is  cannel  coal  found,  and  for  what  is  it  used? 

21.  How  did  the  discovery  of  natural  gas  change  the  habits 
of  the  people  of  a  certain  city  ? 

22.  Which  has  more  population,  New  York  City  or  the  State 
of  Maine  ? 

23.  What  is  meant  by  long-distance  telephone? 

24.  Along  what  river  in  this  country  are  there  mountains  of 
stratified  rock-salt  ?    (Snake  River.) 

25.  Where  is  the  Hyperborean  Sea  ? 

26.  Define  mesas  and  buttes.  * 

27.  Where  is  the  "Garden  of  the  Gods  "? 


RECREATION  QUESTIONS   IN  GEOGRAPHY  509 

28.  Where  is  the  longest  tunnel  in  the  world  ?  the  longest 
canal  ? 

29.  Who  wrote  u  Three  Years  of  Service"? 

30.  Name  a  good  geographical  novel. 

31.  What  is  the  difference  between  oceanic  and  continental 
islands  ? 

32.  Along  what  parallel   has  the  great  belt  of   civilization 
moved  ? 

33.  What  country  was  the  "  world's  eldest  born  "  ?     (Egypt.) 

34.  Is  there  any  difference  between  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions  ? 

35.  How  can  you  best  place  a  school  globe  so  as  to  see  at  a 
glance  the  pyramidal  southern  projections  of  several  masses  of 
land  and  the  vastness  of  the  oceans  ? 

36.  Who  was  Malte  Brun  ? 

37.  What  Eastern  State  has  seventeen  hundred  lakes,  each 
not  less  in  size  than  one  square  mile  ? 

38.  What  is    the   meaning   of   these   geographical   names  ? 
Norwich,  Hampton,  Bradford,  Deerfield,  Pittsburg,  Winchester, 
Connecticut,  Missouri,  Saybrook. 

39.  Who  are  our  antipodes? 
40    What  is  the  nadir? 

41.  Can  we  see  light  as  it  passes  through  the  sky? 

42.  How  high  can  a  balloon  rise? 

43.  Why  is  silk-raising  more  profitable  in  Italy  or  California 
than  on  the  same  parallel  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  ? 

44.  Where  does  Lehigh  coal  come  from  ? 

45.  What  minerals  are  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the  United 
States  ? 

46.  Who  wrote  "Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States"? 

47.  Where  is  the  "lead"  in  our  pencils  mined? 

48.  Does  all  the  sun's  heat  reach  the  earth's  surface? 

49.  For  what  are  Syracuse  and  Saginaw  noted? 

50.  What  is  the  difference  in  height  between  Denver  and 
Mount  Washington  ? 


510  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

51.  Where  are  all  the  millions  of  slate-pencils  made? 

(Castleton,  Vt.) 

52.  Why  are  the  following  capes  so  named?  Verde,  Blanco, 
Good    Hope,    Farewell,    Finisterre,    Cod,    St.    Roque,    Henry, 
Charles,  and  Barrows. 

53.  Where  is  the  "  Comstock  Lode  "  ? 

54.  What  difference  would  it  make  in  the   climate  of  the 
United  States  if  the  mountain  ranges  ran  east  and  west? 

55.  Does  a  ship  go  to  Europe  any  quicker  than  it  returns? 

56.  Where  in  the   United   States   do   most  of   the   storms 
originate  ? 

57.  For  what  is  kaolin  used  ? 

58.  Of  what  special  use  are  the  mountains   of  the  United 
States  ? 

59.  Where  is  the   centre    of  the   United   States,  including 
Alaska  ? 

60.  For  what  common  metal  is  the  Etta  mine  in  the  Black 
Hills  noted  ?     (Tin.) 

61.  What  city  in  this  country  employs  ten  thousand  persons 
to  make  4,500,000  collars  and  cuffs  each  year  ?     (Troy.) 

62.  About  when  are  the  three  hottest  days  each  year  east  of 
the  Mississippi?     (July  12-17.) 

63.  Is  Omaha  in  the  eastern  or  western  half  of  the  United 
States  ? 

64.  The  number  of  miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States 
would  go  round  the  globe  how  many  times  ? 

65.  What  range  of  mountains  in  this  country  is  noted  for 
four  distinct  uses  ? 

66.  What  fractional  part  of    the  United  States   is    east  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  exclusive  of  Alaska  ? 

67.  What  three  towns  are  due  north  of  your  own,  named  in 
order  of  nearness  ? 

68.  In  what  direction  do  you  usually  see  a  rainbow  ?     Why  ? 

69.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  picture  and  a  map  ? 


RECREATION  QUESTIONS   IN  GEOGRAPHY  511 

70.  What  five  powers  have  the  most  territory  ? 

71.  What  two  insects  are  extensively  reared  in  Europe? 

72.  Where  is  "  Grandfather  Mountain  "  ? 

73.  How  many  days  does  it  take  for  a  letter   to   go   from 
London  to  Bombay?    (16  days,  17  hours.) 

74.  What  countries  in  the  world  are  republics  ? 

75.  Name  in  order  of  value  the  mining  industries  of   the 
United  States. 

76.  Where  are  glass  bottles  made? 

77.  What  section  produces  the  most  silver  ? 

78.  Does  France  export  or  import  wheat? 

79.  How  many  Indians  are  there  in  the  United  States? 

80.  What  people  of  Asia  are  nomadic  ? 

81.  Where  are  pouch-bearing  animals  abundant? 

82.  What  are  atolls? 

83.  Where  are  the  Moluccas? 

84.  What  State  in  the  United  States  is  the   same  size   as 
Borneo? 

85.  What  is  the  standard  width  of  railroad  tracks  ? 

86.  In  what  country  do  the  leaves  turn  their  edges  towards 
the  sun  ? 

87.  Do  people  in  passing  turn  out  to  the  right  in  all  English- 
speaking  countries  ? 

88.  Where  is  there  the  greatest  fall  of  rain,  —  in  Vera  Cruz, 
or  California  ?    (183  inches  and  19  inches  general  average.) 

89.  Who  are  the  Gauchos  ? 

90.  Where  is  the  Doge's  palace  ? 

91.  What  country  has  a  Grand  Lama?  an  Ameer?  a  Khe- 
dive ?  a  Khan  ?  a  Viceroy  ? 

92.  What  grand  division  is  the  "  Country  of  Beginnings  "? 

93.  Which  race  is  the  most  numerous  ? 

94.  What  are  the  "  Continents  of  History  "  ? 

95.  What  is  hennequen,  and  where  does  it  abound  ? 

96.  Where  is  "  the  roof  of  the  world  "  ? 


512  METHODS  AND  AIDS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

97.  Where  is  "  the  land  of  the  midnight  sun  "  ? 

98.  Where  are  the  Lesser  Antilles  ? 

99.  What  different  countries  have  been  partitioned  ? 

100.  Is  the  whistle  of  the  locomotive  heard  to-day  within  the 
Arctic  Circle?    (Yes,  in  Northern  Sweden.) 

1 01.  Where  is  the    exact  antipodes  of  Boston?    (Lat.  9°  i', 
long.  108°  57'.) 

102.  What  monument  is  imitated  by  the  Washington  Mon- 
ument in  respect  to  relative  size  of  base  and  height  ? 

103.  How  does  the  nearest  steeple  compare  in  height   and 
size  with  the  big  trees  of  California? 

104.  What  people  have  homes  not  as  clean  as  their  neighbors 
the  birds  and  the  bees  ? 

105.  In  what  place  in  the  world  is  there  no  sear  or  yellow 
leaf?    (Penang.) 


INDEX 


AN  index  is  a  necessary  implement.     Without  this  a  large  author 
is  but  a  labyrinth  without  a  clew  to  direct  the  reader  therein. 

Dr.  Fuller. 


5'3 


INDEX. 


Activity  of  Children,  16. 
Adams,  Charles  F.,  140. 
Advanced  Lesson,  199. 
Advantages  of  Pictures,  127. 

Topical  Method,  55. 
Africa,  94-98,  360,  437,  473. 

Books  on,473. 

Poems  on,  449. 

Agriculture,  North  America,  304,  325. 
Aims,  23. 
Alaska,  288. 
Ample  Knowledge,  3 
Animal  Life,  North  America,  297. 
Apparatus,  75-87. 
Arctic    Regions,    Books   on,  210,  211, 

464. 
Area: 

Alaska,  144. 

Argentine  Republic,  142. 

Brazil,  143. 

British  India,  142. 

California,  145. 

United  States,  141. 
Artificial  Water-Routes,  355. 
Asia,  62,  439. 

Books  on,  477. 

Poems  on,  449. 
Attention,  14,  15. 
Average  Child,  7. 

Backup,  Miss,  134. 

Bamboo,  177 

Belts  of  Forests  and  Deserts,  187. 

Better  Methods,  44. 

Birch-bark  Canoe,  289. 

Blackboards,  79,  80,  81. 

Blank-Book,  51. 

Bonanza  Farm,  303. 

Books  with  Pictures,  127,131,132,251. 

in  Paper  Covers,  497. 

tor  Consultation,  2,  22,  38,  54, 
76,  90,  TOO,  138,  190,  240,  245, 
252,  256,  286,  322,  342,  362, 
386. 

Books  ot  Reference,  58,  506. 
Brief  Courses,  24. 
Briet  History  ot   North  America,  257. 


British  America,  Books  on,  465. 
Busy  Work,  158. 

Caldervvood,  17. 
California  Farm,  302. 
Careful  Preparation,  57. 
Central  America,  Books  on,  466. 
Change  of  Seasons,  416-419. 
Charts,  83,  84,  85. 

Animals,  156. 

Review,  169. 

Size  ot  Rivers,  156. 
Child's  Mind,  n.  j 

China,  Books  on,  478. 
Chinese  Opposites,  177. 
Circles,  148. 
Classify,  19. 

Climate,  N.  America,  207,  291,  294,  296* 
Climes,  Children  ot,  163. 
Cloth  Blackboard,  81. 
Collection.  136. 
Comenius,  18. 
Commerce : 

England,  346,  347. 

Facts,  356,  364. 

France,  347. 

How  carried  on,  348. 

Modern,  364-366. 

North  America,  329-332. 

Threes  of,  359. 
Commercial  Centres,  345. 
Commercial  Countries,  345. 
Commercial  Geography,  341-360,  361- 

3^4- 

Comparisons,  260,  280,  300,  312,  334. 
Comparative  Shapes,  152. 
Comparative  Sizes,  1 39. 
Comparative  Size,  North  America,  261 
Comparisons  in  Area,  140,  339. 
Consumption  ot  Different  Articles,  344. 
Contour  Lines,  109. 
Corea,  175. 

Costly  Illustrated  Books,  506. 
Course  of  Study,  221. 
Cramming  Method,  43. 
Currents,  167,  168. 
Customs,  North  America,  312. 

5*5 


INDEX. 


Definition  of  Geography,  30. 

Depressions,  187. 

Devotional  Exercises,  185. 

Diamonds,  367. 

Directions  to  Teachers,  257,  287,  295, 

3I2>323,  33*.  333,  368>  379,  382,  388. 
Discoveries,  33. 
Dull  Pupils,  7. 

Ear,  1 6. 

Earth's  Daily  Motion,  412. 

Rotation,  413. 

Yearly  Motion,  414. 
Education,  North  America,  314-317. 
Egypt,  Books  on,  474. 
Elevations,  170. 

North  America,  269. 
Emile,  9. 
Enthusiasm,  59 
Europe,  Books  on,  441,  484. 

Poems  on,  449. 
Exact  Knowledge,  5. 
Exact  Science,  6. 
Examination,  66. 
Experiment,  398. 
Exports,  330,  332,  369,  375-379,  382- 

Foreign,  369 

Leading,  375-379- 
Express  Business,  366. 
Eye,  17. 

Feeling  of  Confidence,  6. 
Fishing,  North  America,  310. 
Fitch,  18. 

Foreign  Mails,  150. 
Forests  and  Deserts,  187. 
Free  Intercourse,  6. 
French  Works,  503. 
Froebel,  18. 
Funny  Lesson,  183. 

General  Commerce,  346. 
General  Culture.  35. 
General  Intelligence,  35, 
Geographical  Books,  453-507. 
Geographical  Composition,  181. 
Geographical  Grammar,  124. 
Geographical  Readers,  4;  7. 
Geographical  Scrap-Book,  174. 
Geographical  Societies,  431. 
Geographical  Stories,  498. 
Germany,  Books  on,  485. 
German  Books,  505. 
Giant  Trees,  290. 
Government,  North  America,  317. 
Grazing,  North  America,  308. 
Great  Britain,  Imports  of,  382-384. 


Great  Britain,  Books  on,  486. 
Great  Dipper,  407. 
Great  Lakes,  North  America,  273. 
Great  Railroad  Routes,  349-354. 
Greenland,  288. 

Habit  of  Attention,  15. 

Male's  Book,  14. 

Hamilton,  8. 

Harper's  Magazine,  427,  428. 

Heath's  Progressive  Maps,  118. 

Helps,  226,  228,  232,  239,  244,  249. 

Hemisphere,  Northern,  Southern,  157. 

Herodotus,  32. 

Highlands,  North  America,  264. 

Historical  Geography,  168. 

History.   226,  228,   232,  238,  243,  247, 

Humboldt,  29. 

Ideas,  13. 

Illustrated  Composition,  179,  181. 

Illustrated  Works,  132. 

Imagination,  166. 

Importance,  31. 

Important  Water-Routes,  354. 

Imports,  331,  332,  368,  380,  383. 

India,  Books  on,  479. 

Indians,  Books  on,  467. 

Industries,  371. 

Industries,  Mediterranean,  163,  164. 

Inhabitants  who  live  in    a  Wet  or  Dry 

Climate,  172. 
in  a  Warm  or  Cold,  174. 
Italy,  Books  on,  487. 

Japan,  Books  on,  481. 
Journeys,  North  America,  337. 

Knowledge,  5. 

Lakes,  North  America,  273. 

Language,  North  America,  311. 

Large  Maps,  120. 
I  Leading  Exports,  375-379. 
;  Leading  Imports,  380-382. 
j  Leading  Productions,  372-375. 


I  Legendary  Geography,  6. 
i  Lena,  19. 

Life,  North  America,  295,  297. 

List  of  One  Thousand  Books,  456. 

Loan  Collection,  134. 

London,  175. 

Mails,  150.  , 

Manners  and   Customs    North  Amer- 
ica, 312-314. 
Manufactured  Goods,  358. 


INDEX. 


517 


Manufacturing,  N.  America,  305,  306. 
Map-Drawing,  110-113 
Map-Language,  91. 
Map-Questions,  25,  42. 
Map-Reading,  93. 
Maps,  92,  99-120,  154. 
Mariner's  Compass,  394. 
Mathematical  Geography,  385-424. 
Memorizing,  41. 
Mental  Discipline,  26. 
Mexico,  290. 

Books  on,  466. 
Mining,  North  America,  306. 
Miscellaneous  Devices,  137,  139,  187. 
Miscellaneous    Books,   443,   470,   472, 

476,  482,  492,  494. 
Mississippi  Valley,  171. 
Mitchell's  Geography,  125. 
Model  Lessons,  94,  189. 
Modern  Geography,  32. 
Mont  Blanc,  Poem  on,  445. 
Moon,  398,  420-422. 
Mouth  of  the  Po,  155. 

Natural    Divisions,    North     America, 

291. 

Natural  Water-Routes,  355. 
Nature  Teaching,  9. 
Necker,  15. 

New  England.  Books  on,  466. 
North  America,  255-340,  433. 

Agriculture,  301,  304. 

Books  on,  433,  464,  499. 

Brief  History,  257. 

Climate,  291,  294. 

Commerce,  329-332. 

Comparative  Size,  261.      . 

Comparisons,  339,  340. 

Customs,  312-314. 

Education,  314-317. 

Elevations,  269. 

Fishing,  310. 

Government,  317. 

Great  Lakes,  273. 

Grazing,  308. 

Highlands,  264. 

Journeys,  336. 

Language,  311. 

Life,  295,  297. 

Manners,  312-314. 

Map-Drawing,  112. 

Natural  Divisions,  291. 

Manufacturing,  305,  306. 

Mining,  306. 

Occupation,  301. 

Plains,  270 

Poems  for  Illustrations,  447. 


N.  America,  Political  Divisions,  287. 

Population,  299. 

Position,  259. 

Productions,  323-329. 

Races,  298. 

Representative  Cities,  333. 

River  Systems,  273. 

Size,  261. 

Striking  Characteristics,  258. 

Surface.  263. 

Trip  round  the  Coast,  261. 
North  Star,  395. 
No-study  Method,  43. 
Noted  California  Farm,  302. 
Noted  Trade  Routes,  349. 

Objects,  78,  121,  123,  133-136,  249. 
Observations,  388,  395,  404,  409. 
Observing  Powers,  13. 
Occupations,  North  America,  301. 
Ocean  Currents,  293. 
Oceanica : 

Books  on,  494. 

Poems  on.  45 1. 
Odds  and  Ends,  165. 
Orbis  Pictus,  124. 
Orderly  Instruction,  10. 
Ostrich-Feathers,  367. 
Outline  of  Principles,  20. 
Outline  of  the  World,  70. 
Oyster  Farmer,  176. 

Panama  Canal,  165. 

Papers  and  News,  172. 

Paris,  175. 

Payne,  8,  10. 

People  of  the  Atlantic  Coast,  290. 

Pestalozzi,  17. 

Physical  Geography,  167. 

Physical  Maps,  108. 

Pictures,   121,  123-132,  239,  244,  251- 

253- 

Place  Names,  451. 
Plains,  North  America,  269,  270. 
Plant  Distribution,  154. 
Poems  of  Places,  443. 
Polar  Discoveries,  34. 
Polar  Regions,  289. 
Political  Divisions,  N.  America,  287. 
Population,  147,  148. 

North  America,  299. 
Position,  North  America,  259. 
Practical  Object  ot  the  Book,  4. 
Practical  Suggestions,  50,  70,  227,  232, 

241,  246,  253. 
Principles  Involved,  I 
Products,  149. 


5i8 


INDEX. 


Productions,  369,  372. 

Leading,  372-375. 

World's,  369. 

Productions,  North  America,  323-329. 
Productions,  in  Color,  155. 
Progressive  Maps,  1 14-1 19 
Progressive  Outline  Maps,  116. 
Putty  Maps,  107. 

Races,  North  America,  298. 

Railroad  Routes,  349. 

Rainfall,  158. 

Raised  Maps,  102. 

Raw  Materials,  357. 

Rays.  399. 

Reading  Hour,  71-73. 

Reading  and  Talking,  392,  403,  423. 

Recitation,  191,  207. 

Recreation  Questions,  508. 

Reference  Books,  68,  506. 

Relative  Importance,  31. 

Repetition,  19. 

Representative  Cities,  N.  America,  333. 

Reviews,  19,  158. 

Ritter,  27. 

River  Systems,  North  America,  273. 

Rocky-Mountain  Highlands,  196. 

Rocky  Mountains,  Books  on,  468. 

Rousseau,  9. 

Routes,  349,  355. 

Rubber  Pen,  84. 

Rulers,  173. 

Russia,  Books  on,  489. 

Sand  Maps,  103-106. 
Schedule  of  Topics,  46,  48. 
Science  of  the  Where,  26. 
Science  for  Children,  457. 
Science  for  Adults,  461. 
Sensation  and  Attention,  14. 
Shape  of  the  Earth,  403. 
Shapes  of  Countries,  153. 
Siberia,  Books  on,  482. 

Poem  on,  444. 
Sight,  18. 

Sign  for  the  Thing,  19. 
Six  Years  Course,  221-254. 
Size  of  Continents,  139. 

of  the  Earth,  {93. 

North  America,  261. 

of  other  Countries,  140, 146, 151. 

Comparative,  of  Cities,  146,  147 

Comparative,      of      Mountains, 
140,  146 

Comparative,  ot  United  States, 

741,  151. 
Sketch  Maps,  162,  171. 


Solar  Camera,  86,  87. 
Song  of  the  Directions,  394. 
Soubriquets,  178,  179. 
Sources  of  Pictures,  129. 

of  Information,  427. 

of  Illustration,  427,  443. 

of  Knowledge,  28. 
South  America,  61,  67,  436. 
South,  the,  Books  on,  469. 
Spain,  Books  on,  490. 
Spare,  Miss,  135. 
Special  Commercial  Centres,  357. 
Special  Information,  429. 
Spencer,  18. 
Statistics,  148,  149,  371. 
Steamers,  368. 
Stencil  Maps,  82. 

Striking  Characteristics.  N.  Am  ,  258. 
Study,  224,  227,  231,  237,  242,  246,  390, 

400,  410. 

Study  with  Children,  16. 
Sugar-Cane,  175. 
Summer  Saunterings,  79. 
Sun,  420. 

and  Earth,  402. 
Surface,  North  America,  263. 
Surface  Zones,  156. 
Switzerland,  Books  on,  491. 

Teaching  Capacity,  5. 

Text-book  Method,  39,  40. 

Threes  of  Commerce,  359. 

Thring,  8,  11. 

Tides,  422. 

Topical  Method,  16,  45,  55,  64,  65. 

Topics,  46,  48,  237. 

•  for  Reading  Hour,  72. 
Trade  Routes,  349. 
Transfer  Maps,  82. 
Trans-Pacific  Mails    152. 
Travels  for  Children,  Books  of,  459. 

for  Adults,  Books  of.  46}. 
Trip  round  North  America,  261. 
Turkey,  Books  on,  491. 
Tyrol,  175.  | 

Upheavals  and  Depressions,  187. 
Vegetable  Life,  North  America,  297. 

Water-Routes,  354,  355. 
West  Indies,  Books  on,  469. 
White's  Memory,  n. 
World,  Outline  of,  70. 
Books  on,  495. 
Wrong  Methods,  39. 


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really  the  teacher's' vade  mecum.  If  it  could  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every 
instructor  in  our  public  schools,  it  would  work  a  revolution  in  our  methods  of 
education  and  in  the  results  achieved."  —  School  Journal. 

Dr.  Klemm  has  now  in  preparation,  nearly  ready  for  publication,  his  second 
volume,  entitled  "  Chips  from  Educational  Workshops  in  Europe." 
FIRST  STEPS  WITH  AMERICAN  AND  BRITISH  AUTHORS 

By  ALBERT  F.  BLAISDELL  A.M.  author  of  "  Study  in  the  English  Classics" 
"Our  Bodies  and  How  we  Live"  "  How  to  Keep  Well"  "  Child's  Book 
of  Health  "  Cloth  75  cents  net 

"  The  plan  of  the  book  is  unique,  attractive,  and  thoroughly  philosophical. 
In  a  general  way,  the  plan  is  to  study  the  text  of  a  few  representative  authors, 
and  not  merely  to  read  about  many  authors.  It  is  to  study  what  great  authors 
have  written,  and  not  what  some  one  has  written  about  them.  Every  thing  is 
made  subordinate  to  this  great  aim.  In  the  first  few  chapters,  the  method"  of 
studying  a  given  subject  is  fully  explained  and  illustrated."  —  True  Education. 
METHODS  IN  ZOOLOGY  TEACHING  FOR  BEGINNERS 

For  Teachers  in  Common  Schools  By  WALTER  P.  MANTON  M.D.  author 
of  "Field  Botany"  "Insects"  "Beginnings  with  the  Microscope" 
"  Taxidermy  "  Cloth  50  cents 

Dr.  Manton  has  been  very  successful  in  his  practical  helps  in  various 
branches  of  study,  and  this  manual  will  prove  welcome  to  all  interested  in  this 
subject  The  book  is  clearly  and  concisely  written,  and  the  directions  are  plain 
and  to  the  point,  the  different  instruments  and  tools  necessary  being  fully 
illustrated  and  explained. 
HOW  SHALL  MY  CHILD  BE  TAUGHT? 

Practical  Pedagogy  or  the  Science  of  Teaching  Illustrated  By  LOUISA 
PARSONS  HOPKINS  Supervisor  in  Boston  Public  Schools  Cloth  $1.20  net 

"The  Boston  Herald"  says:  "  Mrs.  Louisa  Parsons  Hopkins  has  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  science  of  teaching,  and  her  book  will  be  of  the  greatest 
service  to  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  tasks  of  primary  teaching.  She  is  less 
didactic  than  experimental  in  her  methods;  but  the  points  which  she  makes 
are  those  that  lead  to  success,  because  they  have  been  proved  in  the  school- 
room, and  have  the  authority  of  the  great  schoolmasters  of  modern  times." 

Sold  by  all  booksellers,  and  when  sent  by  mai'l,  ten  Per  cent  to  be  added 

LEE  AND  SHEPARD  Publishers  Boston 

30 


HLfflSDELL'S  DOJIIPLETE  SERIES 


OF    TEXT-BOOKS    ON 


PHYSIOLOGY  HP  HYGIENE, 


WITH   SPECIAL    REFERENCE   TO 


THE   EFFECTS  OF  STIMULANTS   AND    NARCOTICS 
ON   THE  HUMAN  SYSTEM. 


I. 

FOR    PRIMARY    GRADES. 

THE    CHILD'S    BOOK    OF    HEALTH. 

AN    INTRODUCTION    TO 

THE  STUDY  OF  PHYSIOLOGY,  COMPRISING  HEALTH-MAXIMS  AND  SIMPLF 
INSTRUCTION. 
SO  Cents,  Net. 

n. 

FOR   INTERMEDIATE  AND   LOWER    GRAMMAR    GRADES. 

HOW    TO    KEEP    WELL. 

Physiology  for  Boys  and  Girls. 

AN    ADMIRABLE    SUPPLEMENTARY    READING-BOOK. 
42  Cents,  Net. 

III. 

FOR    UPPER    GRAMMARS,    HIGH   SCHOOLS,    AND    ACADEMIES. 

OUR    BODIES,  AND    HOW    WE    LIVE. 

A  THOROUGH,  PRACTICAL,  TEACHABLE  TEXT-BOOK  OF  HEALTH,  EASED 

ON  THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PLAN. 

6O  Cents,  Net. 


PUBLISHED  BY  LEE  AND  SHEPARD, 

1O   Milk  Street,   Boston. 


'WHAT    INTERESTS      IS     REMEMBERED." 


YOUNG    FOLKS' 


History  of  the  United  States. 

BY  THOMAS  WENTWORTH    HIGGINSON. 


Small  quarto,  fully  illustrated.     Price  $1.20  net 


tfl 


From  J.  V.  JACKMAN,  Master  of  West  Schools,  Marlborough, 
Mass. 

"  I  have  used  Higginson's  '  Young  Folks'  History  ol  the 
United  States'  ever  since  its  first  appearance,  and  I  am  satisfied 
that  it  is  the  best  text-book  on  the  subject  that  has  ever  been 
printed. 

"  1  have  never  yet  seen  a  pupil  that  found  it  tiresome,  nor  has 
any  pupil  asked  to  be  allowed  to  drop  the  study  of  history 
since  we  began  to  use  it.  Could  more  be  said  in  favor  of  a  text- 
book? " 

„       "a      From   B.    B.    RUSSELL,  Master  of  Grammar  School,  Law- 
JS--  *  re  nee,  Mass. 

£>~'j2  "We  have  used  Higginsoh's  'Young  Folks'  History'  for 

w.— "  ;j  some  time  with  satisfaction.  The  style  is  so  interesting  that 

c  o  H  the  study  becomes  a  pleasure,  and  pupils  are  led  to  read  the 

o'o-o  heavier  works  by  the  thirst  engendered  by  the  study  of  this 

>^  8  book." 

*c  |  2      From  L.  F.  WARREN,  Master  of  Grammar  School,  Neivton, 
8  re  •$  Mass. 

'5iP—  "We  have  used  Higginson's 'Young  Folks'  History  of  the 

•^  v  *2  United  States'  in  our  grammar  schools  for  some  time,  and  with 

K  £  «  very  satisfactory  results. 

"  .-  <n  "  The  pupils  readily  obtain  a  good  knowledge  of  the  history 

^^  of  our  country  by  using  this  valuable  work  as  the  text-book." 


y   t/i 

- 


*  5»  i 

5  o  i 
o  C 


The  f  History  '  is  meeting  with  unprecedented  success  in  the  large 
cities.  It  has  been  adopted  as  the  text-book  in  United-States 
History  for  all  the  schools  of  the  city  of  Boston.  It  has  also  been 
adopted  for  use  in  the  public  schools  in  NEW  YORK,  BROOK- 
LYN, JERSEY  CITY,  NEWARK,  PATERSON,  PITTS- 
BURG,  and  cities  and  towns  in  every  part  of  the  country. 

J*  #  Copies  furnished  for  examination  to  teachers  on  receipt  of  $i. 


LEE   AND  SHEPARD,  Publishers, 

No.  IO  Milk   Street,   Boston. 


"Concise,  Clear,  Logical,  Practical."  —  PROFESSOR  HAGAB 


GRAMMAR  FOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

BY 

B.    F.    TWEED    A.M. 

LATE  SUPERVISOR  OF  BOSTON  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
PRICE  30  CENTS  NET. 


"  We  have  in  this  little  book  the  most  that  is  good,  with  the  least  that  Is 
not,  of  any  elementary  text-book  on  grammar  that  we  have  seen  in  many  a 
day.  Professor  Tweed  is  as  thoroughly  equipped  for  tnis  work  as  any  man 
we  know,  —  a  natural  linguist,  a  searcher  for  facts  in  words  and  phrases,  with 
the  instinct  of  the  sensible  side  of  the  critic.  With  the  richest  of  school- 
room experience,  with  a  wide  range  of  observation  of  the  work  of  teachers, 
from  his  supervising  relations  in  several  cities  and  towns,  he  brings  to  his 
task  all  the  requisites,  balancing  each  other  with  remarkable  effect.  We 
opened  the  book  with  high  expectations;  we  close  it,  feeling  that  he  has  more 
than  realized  our  idea.  We  did  not  anticipate  quite  such  a  genuine  winnow- 
ing of  the  needless,  nor  hope  for  so  thorough  a  digest  of  the  essentials.  It  is 
in  no  sense  a  compendium,  but  a  usabte  school-room  book.  It  will  frighten 
any  heedless  reviewer  because  of  its  littleness;  it  will  surprise  the  careful 
reviewer  because  of  its  '  muchness.'  "  —  New-England  Journal  of  Education. 

"  The  first  thing  that  strikes  us  in  Tweed's  grammar  is  its  size.  It  is 
small,  a  manual  proper;  and,  if  children  must  study  grammar,  the  teacher 
will  find  here  the  minimum  of  facts  desirable  for  the  child  to  know.  We 
are  glad  t&  see  the  appendix  coming  into  fashion  in  the  text-books  for 
children.  Professor  Tweed  has  placed  one  in  the  back  of  his  volume,  and  it 
contains  much  information  of  interest  to  the  teacher. 

Teachers  will  be  pleased  with  the  simplicity  of  the  analysis  recommended 
by  Professor  Tweed.  Exercises  are  abundantly  distributed  throughout  the 
book.  Methods  of  work  are  given,  and  the  treatment  of  every  topic  gives 
evidence  of  scholarship  as  well  as  acquaintance  with  the  school-room.  The 
book,  no  doubt,  will  have  a  hearty  welcome."  —  Popular  Educator. 

"Here  it  is,  precisely  what  is  needed.  Professor  Tweed  has  done  it.  And 
who  better  fitted  for  the  work  than  he?  Where's  the  man  who  can  produce 
a  hetter  grammar  ? 

His  book  is  small  in  size;  that,  considering  how  good  and  apt  it  is,  is  one 
of  its  best  recommendations.  One  finds  it  lucidly  defined  and  arranged;  just 
the  necessary  data  to  work  by,  and  within  the  study  of  language.  The  pro- 
fessor has  been  singularly  happy  in  his  terminology  and  definitions,  a  very 
nice  point  in  this  connection;  and  I  heartily  commend  his  grammar  as  the 
timely  book  we  need."  —  Henry  F.  Harrington,  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
New  .Bedford,  Mass. 


LEE  AND    SHEPARD    Publishers   Boston 


•   JANE  ANDREWS'S   BOOKS.  (5) 

THE  STORIES   MOTHER   NATURE   TOLD   HER 
CHILDREN. 

Illustrated.     Library  Edition,  $1. 00.     School  Edition,  50  cts.  net ;  by  mail,  55  cts. 

ONLY  A    YEAR,  AND   WHAT  IT  BROUGHT. 

A  Book  for  Girls.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

TEN   BOYS 

WHO  LIVED  ON  THE  ROAD  FROM  LONG  AGO  TO  NOW 

With  Twenty  Illustrations.     Cloth.     80  cents,  net.    By  mail,  $1.00. 

INTRODUCING  THE    STORIES  OP 

THE  ARYAN  BOY,    THE  PERSIAN  BOY,    THE  GREEK  BOY,    THE  ROMAN 

BOY,  THE  SAXON  BOY.  THE  PAGE,  THE  ENGLISH  LAD,  THE 

PURITAN  BOY,  THE  YANKEE  BOY,  THE  B01  OF  1885. 

The  poet  JOHN  G.  WHITTIER  says  of  it:  — 

(t  I  have  been  reading  the  new  book  by  Jane  Andrews,  *  Ten  Boys  who  Lived 
on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  to  Now,'  which  you  have  just  published,  and  can- 
not  forbear  saying  that  in  all  my  acquaintance  with  juvenile  literature  I  know  of 
nothing  in  many  respects  equal  to  this  remarkable  book,  which  contains  in  its 
small  compass  the  concentrated  knowledge  of  vast  libraries.  It  is  the  admirably 
told  story  of  past  centuries  of  the  world's  progress,  and  the  amount  of  study  and 
labor  required  in  its  preparation  seems  almost  appalling  to  contemplate.  '  One  is 
struck  with  the  peculiar  excellence  of  its  style,  —  clear,  easy,  graceful,  and  pic« 
turesque,  —  which  a  child  cannot  fail  to  comprehend,  and  in  which  'children  of  a 
larger  growth  '  will  find  an  irresistible  charm.  That  it  will  prove  a  favorite  with 
old  and  young,  I  have  no  doubt.  It  seems  to  me  that  nothing  could  be  more  en- 
joyable to  the  boy  of  our  period  than  the  story  of  how  the  boys  of  all  ages  lived 
and  acted." 


THE   SEVEN    LITTLE   SISTERS 

WHO  LIVE  ON   THE  ROUND    BALL    THAT  FLOATS   IN    THE  AIR. 

Library  Edition,  $1.00.     School  Edition,  6O  cents,  net.    By  mail,  65  cents. 
The  Seven  Little  Sisters  are  typical  of  seven  races;  and  the  author's 
idea  is  to  portray  how  these  "  little  women"  live  in  diverse  parts  of 
the  world,  how  the  products  of  one  country  are  brought  to  another, 
their  manners,  customs,  etc.    The  stories  are  charmingly  told. 


Tie  Seven  little  Sisters  Prove  TMr  Sisterhood 

Library  Edition,  $1.00.     School  Edition,  60  cents,  net.    By  mail,  66  cents. 

This  may  be  considered  a  sequel  to  The  Seven  Little  Sisters,  in 
which  the  nationalities  are  again  taken  up,  and. the  peculiarities  of 
each,  in  relation  to  its  childhood,  are  naturally  and  pleasingly  given. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    PLAYS. 

Comprising  United   States,   Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America) 

Australia  and  the  Islands,  the  Commerce  of  the  World. 

Cloth,  $1.00 ;   or  in  Paper  Cowers,  15  cents  each.     Six  Parts. 


Sold  by  all  booksellers,  and  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  on  receipt  of  price. 

LEE    AND    SI-IEPARD,    Publishers,    Boston 


HOW  SHALL  MY  CHILD  BE  TAUGHT? 

Practical  Pedagogy ;  or,  The   Science  of  Teaching  Ilh  strated 

By  LOUISA  PARSONS  HOPKINS 

SUPERVISOR  IN  BOSTON  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
12mo    CLOTH    $1,50 

The  papers  contained  in  this  volume  were  originally  published  in  the 
"  Primary  Teacher,"  and  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention  for  the  practical 
views  advanced.  "  The  Boston  Herald  "  says,  — 

"  Mrs.  Louisa  P.  Hopkins  has  made  a  careful,  practical  study  of  the  science 
of  teaching,  and  her  book  will  be  of  the  greatest  service  to  those  who  aro 
engaged  in  the  tasks  of  primary  teaching.  She  is  less  didactic  than  experi- 
mental in  her  methods;  but  the  points  which  she  makes  are  those  that  lead 
inevitably  to  success,  because  they  have  been  proved  in  the  schoolroom,  and 
have  the  authority  of  the  great  schoolmasters  of  modern  times.  The  secret 
of  Mrs.  Hopkins's  success  lies  in  the  following  of  the  natural  laws  of  educa 
tion.  These  are  laws  of  mental  action,  when  the  mind  is  free  to  act  under 
the  impulse  of  play  instead  of  taskwork.  The  method  cannot  be  reduced  to 
rule;  it  is  the  method  of  the  live  teacher,  who  feels  with  the  child,  and 
guides  and  inspires  his  mental  action.  All  the  questions  with  which  the 
primary  teacher  has  to  deal  are  here  illustrated  in  a  practical  way.  The 
motherliness  of  Mrs.  Ilopkins's  plan  of  teaching  is  a  noticeable  feature  of 
her  instructions.  The  book  abounds  in  suggestions  which  mothers  and 
teachers  will  find  of  great  helpfulness  in  dealing  with  the  young.  There  is 
more  truth  as  to  right  methods  of  education  in  this  little  book  than  can  else 
where  be  found  in  any  other  work  of  its  kh:d.  It  deals  with  piinciples 
which  should  be  in  operation  in  every  home  and  school,  and  its  careful  study 
by  young  teachers  will  save  them  many  disastrous  mistakes  iu  the  first  years 
of  their  service." 


OTHER  WORKS  BY  SAME  AUTHOR 


EDUCATIONAL    PSYCHOLOGY:    A    Treatise   for 

Parents  and  Educators.    Cloth $0.50 

HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  EARTH :  Natural  Methods 

in  Geography.    Cloth .50 

NATURAL  HISTORY  PLAYS,  DIALOGUES, 
and  RECITATIONS  for  School  Exhibitions. 
Boards  net 30 

BREATH  OF   THE  FIELD  AND  SHORE.    Cloth.    .        l.2:> 
MOTHERHOOD.    Cloth.    Full  Gilt 1.50 


LEE  &  SHEPARD  Publishers  Boston 


TEXT  *  ROOKS  •  FOR  •  THE  «  KINDERGARTEN 


ARITHMETIC    FOR   YOUNG   CHILDREN      By  HORACE   GRANT 

American  edition  edited  by  Willard  Small     50  cents 

"This  little  book  belongs  to  the  best  class  of  agencies  which  are  being 
brought  forward  by  the  new  ideas  and  natural  methods  of  education.  The 
author  understands  young  children,  —  their  need  of  simplicity,  repetition, 
variety,  and  concrete  or  picture-like  presentation;  and  he  believes  in  making 
mental  exertion  a  pleasure.  We  commend  this  book  to  all  primary  teachers 
and  to  mothers  who  would  like  to  give  the  little  people  a  play-spell  while  in 
the  very  act  of  training  them  to  *  easy  reckoning.'  "  —  Christian  Register. 

EXERCISES  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SENSES 
FOR  YOUNG  CHILDREN  By  HORACE  GRANT  50  cents 
"  This  excellent  little  work  has  been  prepared  for  the  amusement  in 
instruction  of  the  younger  children,  who  are  too  young  to  learn  to  read 
and  write.  Its  special  object  is  to  excite  them  to  examine  surrounding  objects 
correctly,  so  that  valuable  knowledge  may  be  obtained,  while  the  attention, 
memory,  judgment,  and  invention  are  duly  exercised.  It  instructs  while  it 
pleases,  and  the  acquiring  of  knowledge  by  the  little  one  is  closely  connected 
with  many  pleasant  bits  of  memory,  always  likely  to  be  retained."  — Salem 
Observer. 

THE   CHILD'S   BOOK   OF   HEALTH     By  ALBERT  F.   BLAISDELL 

M.D.     Boards  30  cents  net     By  mail  35  cents 

"  This  book  presents,  in  a  manner  interesting  and  intelligible  to  the  youngest 
reader,  the  simplest  physiological  facts,  the  aim  being  to  stimulate  the  little 
ones  to  learn  and  practise  things  which  will  promote  their  bodily  health.  The 
matter  is  arranged  in  easy  lessons  for  schools.  The  print  is  large,  and  words 
simple  and  easily  understood.  Special  reference  is  made  to  the  effects  of 
stimulants  on  the  bodily  health.  The  book  is .  useful  in  what  it  suggests  as 
well  as  what  it  contains."  —  Norwich  Bulletin. 

NATURAL    HISTORY   PLAYS    DIALOGUES   AND    RECITA- 
TIONS  FOR   SCHOOL   EXHIBITIONS     By  LOUISA  P.  HOPKINS 
supervisor  in  Boston  public  schools     Boards  30  cents  net    By  mail  35  cents 
These  are  written  for  a  class  of  pupils  of  from  seven  to  twelve  years  of  age, 
and  are  designed  for  concerts  or  part-recitation  and  reading.     The  "  move- 
ment plays  "  combine  with  the  text  many  imitations  of  the  natural  movements 
of  animals  represented,  after  the  manner  of  the  Froebel  kindergarten  plays. 
Incidentally  the  children  are  taught  facts   concerning  the  structure,  habits, 
food,  and  haunts  of  birds,  beasts,  and  insects. 


Sold  by  all  booksellers  or  sent  by  mail  postpaid  on  receipt  of  price 

LEE  AND  SHEPARD   Publishers  Boston 


KINDERGARTEN  •  JREASURES 


MOTHER-PLAY  AND  NURSERY  SONGS  By  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL 
Translated  from  the  German  by  Miss  Jarvis  and  Miss  Dwight  Edited  by 
ELIZABETH  P.  PEABODY  Quarto  Boards  $2.00 

"  It  is  a  large  quarto  in  form,  and  is  filled  with  illustrations  and  music.  It 
is  charmingly  adapted  for  mothers  who  wish  to  develop  their  children's  facul- 
ties in  the  highest  and  best  manner.  It  commences  with  songs  appropriate 
for  the  first  movements  of  the  little  limbs,  and  pictures  the  play  that  accom- 
panies the  music.  It  carries  on  the  delightful  process  in  harmony  with  the 
growth  of  the  child,  making  the  limbs,  the  features,  the  senses,  birds  and 
animals,  and  the  simple  sports  of  children  the  teachers  in  this  system  of  train- 
ing, the  inspiration  for  the  bright  nursery  songs.  The  process  is  pleasantly 
illustrated  in  the  pictures,  the  quaintness  and  simplicity  of  the  German 
sketches  adding  to  the  attraction  ot  the  text.  Wise  are  the  mothers  who  bring 
up  their  children  with  '  Mother-Play '  for  a  teacher,  and  fortunate  the  children 
who  enjoy  such  instruction;  for  self-respect  and  politeness,  kindness  and  gen- 
erosity, rhythmical  motion,  music  and  poetry  grow  with  their  growth,  and 
strengthen  with  their;  strength."  —  Providence  Journal. 

REMINISCENCES  OF  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL  By  BARONESS  B. 
VON  MARENHOLZ-BiiLOW  Translated  by  Mrs.  Horace  Mann  With  a  sketch 
of  the  life  of  Friedrich  Froebel  by  Miss  Emily  Shirreff  xamo.  Cloth  $1.50 

"  A  most  delightful  work:  one  that  possesses  all  the  absorbing  interest  of  a 
first-class  German  romance,  while  it  presents  pencil  sketches  and  reminis- 
cences connected  with  the  distinguished  author  of  the  kindergarten  system 
that  most  beautifully  illustrate  the  honesty,  simplicity,  and  earnestness  of  his 
lovely  character,  which  so  admirably  combined  the  sterner  elements  of  indomi- 
table perseverance  with  the  tender,  loving  nature  of  a  child.  The  kindergar- 
ten has  been  adopted  by  the  civilized  world,  and  the  name  of  Froebel  has 
become  immortal.  Attached  to  these  '  Reminiscences'  is  a  sketch  of  the  life 
of  Froebel,  by  Emily  Shirreff,  president  of  the  Froebel  Society  of  London." 

HOW  SHALL  MY  CHILD  BE  TAUGHT?  Practical  Pedagogy 
or  the  Science  of  Teaching*  By  Mrs.  LOUISA  PARSONS  HOPKINS  super- 
visor in  Boston  public  schools  Cloth  $1.50 

"  The  author  of  this  excellent  work,  in  the  body  of  the  book,  answers  very 
satisfactorily  the  question,  '  How  shall  my  child  be  taught? '  Mrs.  Hopkins 
has  had  a  large  and  very  successful  experience  in  the  training  of  children,  and 
her  work  and  its' results  are  sufficient  proof  that  children  love  to  learn,  that 
they  are  eager  for  knowledge,  and  that,  with  proper  methods,  based  upon 
correct  principles,  they  will  learn,  and  will  accomplish  a  wonderful  amount 
of  work.  An  essay  by  Thomas  W.  Higginson  in  which  he  indorses  the 
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